EMERSONANDBETTS 
W 


BOOK  ONE 


BQBBS 
MERRILL 


BIOLOGY 
LIBRARY 


See  his  good-morning  smile.     He  has  had  a  good  night's  sleep  in 
fresh  air  and  is  now  ready  for  a  day  of  fun  and  work 


H  TGI  EN  E    AND  ,  H,Z  4  L  T.If'./S  ERI ES 


Hygiene  and  Health 
BOOK  ONE 


By 
CHARLES  P.  EMERSON 

Dean  and  Professor  of  Medicine,  Indiana  University- 
School  of  Medicine 

and 
GEORGE  HERBERT  BETTS 

Northwestern  University,  Evanston,  Illinois 


ILLUSTRATED 


INDIANAPOLIS 

THE  BOBBS-MERRILL  COMPANY 
PUBLISHERS 


COPYRIGHT  1919-1921 
THE  EODPS-MERRILL  COMPANY 


BIOLOGY 

IBRARY 

G 


PRINTERS  AND  BINDERS 


INTRODUCTION 

The  distinguishing  feature  of  HYGIENE  AND  HEALTH  is  ils 
outstanding  aim  and  plan  of  causing  the  pupils  to  form  right 
habits  of  physical  living.  In  order  to  achieve  this  end,  they 
must  be  led  from  day  to  day  to  do  the  things  that  lead  to 
health  and  vigor,  and  to  avoid  the  things  that  injure  and 
weaken. 

Each  lesson  therefore  provides  for  certain  suitable  activ- 
ities to  be  carried  out.  The  children  are  asked  to  learn  by 
doing,  which  is  not  only  good  pedagogy,  but  even  better  hygiene. 
The  exercises  provided  are  an  integral  part  of  the  text,  and  are 
of  the  practical  sort  that  find  a  setting  in  the  daily  life  of  every 
child.  A  skilful  carrying  out  of  the  many  simple  experiments 
and  projects  given  will  not  only  bring  zest  and  motive  to  the 
work,  but  will  serve  to  carry  the  facts  learned  over  into  every- 
day practise.  The  wise  teacher  will,  therefore,  bend  every 
effort  to  make  the  lessons  take  hold  from  day  to  day  as  they 
are  taught.  She  will  measure  her  success  by  the  extent  to  which 
the  children  live  better  physically,  here  and  now,  because  of  the 
lessons  learned,  and  by  the  extent  to  which  they  are  forming 
right  hygienic  habits  as  they  are  passing  through  the  text. 

Those  familiar  with  the  texts  in  this  field  will  note  the 
avoidance  in  the  present  volume  of  two  extremes:  first,  the 
over-emphasis  on  physiology  and  anatomy  which  character- 
izes the  older  type  of  text;  and,  second,  the  equally  dangerous 
method  of  certain  more  recent  texts,  which  offer  a  collection 
of  mere  stories  and  illustrations  combined  with  sets  of  hygienic 
rules.  This  book  stresses  hygienic  practise  above  all  else,  but 
does  not  fail  to  give  the  underlying  facts  and  explanations  for 
which  the  child's  mind  is  at  this  stage  ready,  and  which  his 
curiosity  demands.  While  immediate  habits  of  right  living  are 
the  great  aim  sought,  the  pupil  is,  step  by  step,  led  to  an  intel- 
ligent mnderstanding  of  his  own  body  and  the  laws  which 
govern  its  welfare.  The  authors  offer  this  volume  as  one  small 
contribution  to  the  present  national  movement  to  build  up  a 
better  physical  basis  of  life  for  our  nation. 

THE  AUTHORS. 

505469 


HYGIENE  AND  HEALTH 


HYGIENE  AND  HEALTH 

CHAPTER  I 

MAKING   OUR   HABITS   OUR   FRIENDS 

Did  you  ever  notice  which  shoe  you  put  on  first  in 
the  morning?  Or  which  arm  you  first  put  into  your 
coat?  Not  that  it  matters  which  comes  first  in  either 
case,  but  it  is  likely  that  you  do  put  on  your  shoes 
and  your  coat  in  the  same  way  every  time. 

This  is  because  you  have  formed  the  habit  of  doing 
these  things  in  a  certain  manner.  Acts  that  we  come 
to  do  without  stopping  to  think  about  them,  or  with- 
out intending  to  do  them  we  call  our  habits. 

How  habits  are  formed. — My  friend  Tom  has  a 
chum  who  stammers.  Tom  was  thoughtless  and 
unkind  enough  to  mimic  his  chum  several  times.  He 
did  it  in  fun,  of  course,  and  had  no  notion  of  learning 
to  stammer  himself.  But  it  was  not  long  until  Tom's 
mother  noticed  that  he  was  stammering.  When  she 
spoke  to  him  about  it,  Tom  said  he  didn't  mean  to  do 
it,  and  that  it  "just  did  itself."  That  was  true.  After 
he  had  performed  the  act  of  stammering  a  few  times 
it  went  on  and  did  itself  without  Tom  intending  it. 

I 


2  HYGIENE  AND   HEALTH 

The  habit  was  formed,  and  Tom  is  having  much  trouble 
in  breaking  it. 

We  can  form  either  good  habits  or  bad  habits.  If 
we  perform  only  the  right  kind  of  acts  our  habits  will 
be  good.  If  we  do  things  that  ought  not  to  be  done 
and  continue  doing  them  for  a  little  time  we  will  have 
habits  that  are  bad.  For  day  by  day  our  habits  are 
growing  out  of  our  acts. 

"Friend-habits"    and    "enemy-habits."  —  Dr. 

William  James  tells  us  that  the  great  thing  is  to  make 
our  habits  our  friends  instead  of  our  enemies.  Horace 
Mann  once  said,  "Habit  is  a  cable;  we  weave  a  thread 
of  it  each  day  and  it  becomes  so  strong  we  can  not 
break  it." 

The  real  purpose  of  your  studying  physiology  and 
hygiene  is  to  help  you  form  right  habits  of  living. 
The  way  we  care  for  our  bodies  to-day,  to-morrow  and 
the  days  that  lie  ahead  quickly  becomes  habit;  and  our 
good  health  is  after  all  largely  the  result  of  good  habits. 

Signs  of  good  and  bad  habits. — I  can  explain 
what  I  mean  in  this  way:  If  I  should  go  about  your 
school  and  examine  the  teeth  of  the  boys  and  girls  I 
should  find  that  some  have  white,  clean  and  attractive 
teeth.  Their  teeth  are  not  discolored,  they  do  not  have 
holes  in  them,  nor  do  they  ache.  I  am  quite  sure  that 
those  who  have  teeth  of  this  kind  are  the  ones  who 
have  formed  the  habit  of  washing  their  teeth  and 
keeping  their  mouths  clean. 


MAKING  OUR  HABITS  OUR  FRIENDS  3 

It  is  probable  that  I  should  also  find  some  with  teeth 
that  are  not  very  clean  nor  attractive.  Particles  of 
food  are  lodged  between  the  teeth,  many  of  them  have 
cavities,  and  some  ache  quite  frequently.  Is  it  not 
likely  that  the  boys  and  girls  who  have  teeth  of  this 
undesirable  kind  are  the  ones  who  have  not  formed 
the  habit  of  caring  for  their  teeth  regularly? 

The  fine  looking  soldiers  who  stand  so  straight, 
look  so  spick  and  span,  and  carry  themselves  so  well 
must  pass  "inspection"  every  morning.  When  the 
officer  comes  along  every  button  and  buckle  must  be 
in  place,  every  uniform  spotless,  every  shoe  shined, 
and  everything  about  each  soldier  neat,  clean  and  in 
order.  Soldiers  quickly  form  these  habits.  It  is  a  part 
of  their  training. 

Looking  after  our  habits. — Many  schools  are 
coming  to  have  morning  "inspection"  like  the  soldiers. 
Suppose  we  should  have  inspection  in  your  school 
room  this  morning.  I  am  sure  I  should  find  some  boys 
and  girls  whose  hands  and  nails  are  clean  and  well- 
kept,  whose  hair  shows  care,  and  whose  clothes  are 
neat.  They  could  pass  "inspection" ;  they  have  formed 
right  habits  about  these  things. 

Is  it  not  possible  that  I  should  also  find  others  with 
hands  and  nails  that  show  less  care,  with  hair  that 
looks  stubborn  and  untrained,  and  with  clothes  that 
need  brushing  or  mending? 

The  difference  is  one  of  habits.     If  we  have  formed 


HYGIENE  AND  HEALTH 


the  habit  of  cleaning  our  teeth  and  nails  and  of  brush- 
ing our  hair,  so  that  we  would  no  more  think  of  starting 
our  day  without  doing  these  things  than  we  would  of 

going  without  our 
meals  or  our  sleep, 
then  we  may  be 
sure  that  we  can 
pass  ' 'inspection." 
Let  us  not  forget 
that  anybody  who 
sees  us  can  tell  the 
kind  of  personal 
habits  we  have 
formed  by  noticing 
how  we  keep  our 
hair,  nails,  teeth, 
shoes  and  clothes. 
These  things  al- 
ways tell  on  us. 

A  good  rule. — 

A  very  simple  rule 

Clothes  clean  and  neat,  hair  brushed,  teeth  and  for  habit  forming 
nails  attended  to,  faces  good-natured  and  smil-  •  «  .  .  .  . 

ing.    "Friend-habits"  forming  1S  tms:      Anything 

that  we  want    to 

keep  on  doing,  as  sleeping  with  open  windows  or 
sitting  and  walking  straight,  we  should  go  at  it  and 
do  until  the  habit  is  formed.  Then  the  desirable  act 
will  go  on  of  itself  without  care  or  effort. 


READY  FOR  INSPECTION 


MAKING  OUR  HABITS  OUR  FRIENDS 


Anything  that  we  do  not  want  to  keep  on  doing,  as 
putting  p3ncils  in  our  mouths  or  eating  too  rapidly,  we 
should  be  careful  not  to  do  at  all  because  the  habit  will 
surely  form  in  that  direc- 
tion. Things  that  we  go 
on  doing  for  a  little  time 
result  in  habits  no  matter 
whether  we  wish  them  to 
or  not;  they  finally  come 
to  "do  themselves." 

All  of  us  have  many 
habits  that  are  good  and 
some  that  are  bad.  It  is 
a  good  thing  for  each  of 
us  to  make  a  list  of  the 
habits  that  he  ought  to 
form;  also*  another  list 
of  the  habits  that  he 
would  like  to  break. 


Habits  to  make  our 
friends. —  Some  of  the 
habits  that  we  may  make 
our  friends  are  these: 


EARLY  TO  BED 

Twelve  hours'  sleep  for  young  children, 

ten  for  all  others.     This  is  one  of  the 

best  "friend-habits"  we  can  form 


Opening  our  bedroom  windows  at  night. 

Brushing  the  teeth  after  each  meal. 

Sitting  so  that  the  light  will  not  fall  in  the  eyes 

when  we  read. 

Bathing  several  times  a  week. 


6  HYGIENE  AND  HEALTH 

Learning  to  say  please,  thank  you,  beg  pardon, 

and  other  kindly  expressions. 

Being  on  time. 

Going  to  bed  and  getting  up  at  regular  hours. 

Keeping  clothing,  shoes,  hair  and  nails  neat. 

Eating  slowly  and  learning  to  like  different  kinds 

of  foods. 

Keeping  good-natured  and  happy. 

Habits  to  shun. — These  habits  are  always  our 
enemies;  if  we  have  formed  any  such  habits  we  should 
go  about  it  at  once  to  break  them: 

Sprawling  bent   forward   over   our  desk    when 

we  study. 

Sliding    down    in    our     seat    with    the     body 

cramped. 

Biting  the  finger-nails  or  picking  at  the  nose. 

Coughing  or  sneezing  near  other  people. 

Not  speaking  our  words  clearly  and  distinctly. 

Keeping  our  desk  or  room  in  disorder. 

Being  sullen,  sour,  cross  or  easily  angry. 

Carelessness  about  errands  or  other  duties. 

Eating  candy  or  having  soda  fountain  treats 

between  meals. 

The  use  of  tobacco  or  liquor  in  any  form. 
Now  stop  and  think  a  minute.     How  many  of  the 
"friend -habits"  can  you  honestly  say  you  have  formed? 
How  many  of  the  "enemy-habits"  have  you? 


MAKING  OUR  HABITS  OUR  FRIENDS 


No  doubt  you  can  think  of  still  other  habits  that 
you  would  like  to  form,  and  some  that  you  ought  to 
break.  Try  writing  down  at  least  five  of  each  kind. 

A  letter  from  the  authors. — At  the  very  beginning 
the  authors  wish  to  give 
a  personal  message  to 
the  boys  and  girls  who 
study  this  text.  Our 
message  is  this:  We 
want  you  not  only  to 
learn  the  things  the  book 
tells  you,  but  we  want 
you  to  do  them.  When 
the  lessons  tell  you  how 
to  keep  your  bodies  well, 
how  to  make  them  grow, 
how  to  be  strong,  do  not 
be  satisfied  until  you 
have  put  the  lessons  into 
practise.  Do  the  right 
things  until  they  become  UP  SMILING 

habits;     refuse    to  do    the       No    loitering    in    dressing    or    chores. 

things  that  injure  you,  so          Another  good  "friend-habit" 
that  you  may  not  form  wrong  habits.     Break  off  your 
"enemy-habits"  now;   form  many  new  ' 'friend-habits" 
just  as  fast  as  you  can. 


2— Oct.     21. 


CHAPTER  II 

HEALTH,    SIZE   AND   GROWTH 

Nearly  every  one  can  tell  how  big  he  is — how  many 
pounds  he  weighs  and  how  many  inches  he  is  tall. 
But  how  many  of  you  can  tell  how  big  you  ought  to 
be  at  your  particular  age? 

When  the  baby  is  born  it  usually  weighs  about 
seven  or  eight  pounds.  If  the  baby  is  well  it  grows  so 
fast  that  it  has  doubled  its  weight  in  six  months  and 
trebled  its  weight  by  its  first  birthday.  So  the  baby 
weighs  twenty  or  twenty-five  pounds  when  it  is  a  year 
old. 

What  our  size  ought  to  be. — But  growth  does 
not  keep  on  at  this  rapid  rate,  and  it  is  well  it  does  not, 
for  we  should  soon  become  too  large  to  move  about. 
When  you  entered  school  at  the  age  of  six  you  probably 
weighed  forty  or  forty-five  pounds,  and  your  height 
should  have  been  about  forty-three  or  forty-four  inches. 

One  of  the  things  that  each  of  us  wants  to  know  is 
whether  our  growth  is  keeping  up.  No  one  wants  to 
be  puny  and  undersized.  We  all  desire  to  be  as  large 
and  strong  as  others  of  our  age. 

Should  we  find  out  that  our  size  is  less  than  it  ought 

8 


HEALTH,  SIZE  AND  GROWTH 


to  be,  we  shall  naturally  wish  to 
find  out  the  cause,  and  if  possible 
remedy  it.  If,  on  the  other  hand, 
we  are  up  to  standard,  we  shall 
try  to  avoid  doing  anything  that 
might  hinder  our  growth  or  les- 
sen our  strength.  We  should  take 
pride  in  strong,  well-built  bodies. 

Our  size  at  different  ages,— 

The  school  boys  and  girls  of  sev- 
eral large  cities  have  been  care- 
fully measured  and  weighed,  so 
that  we  are  able  to  tell  the  size 
of  American  school  children  of 
various  ages.  You  are  to  under- 
stand that  the  figures  given  are 
averages,  some  children  being  larg- 
er and  some  smaller  than  the  size 
stated: 

At  9^  years  boys  should  weigh  60  pounds. 
At  93^  years  girls  should  weigh  57  pounds. 

At  ioJ/£  years  boys  should  weigh  65  pounds. 
At  103/2  years  girls  should  weigh  63  pounds. 

At  1 1  }/2  years  boys  should  weigh  71  pounds. 
At  1 1 3^3  years  girls  should  weigh  69  pounds. 

At  12^/2  years  boys  should  weigh  77  pounds. 
At  12^/2  years  girls  should  weigh  79  pounds. 


Gaining  weight  every 

day,  and  proud  of  the 

fact- 


10  HYGIENE  AND  HEALTH 

At  13^/2  years  boys  should  weigh  85  pounds. 
At  13^/2  years  girls  should  weigh  89  pounds. 


At  9^  years  boys  should  be  50  inches  tall. 

At  9^  years  girls  should  be  nearly  50  inches 

tall. 

At  10^2  years  boys  should  be  52  inches  tall. 
At  loJ'Q  years  girls  should  be  nearly  52  inches 
tall. 

At  1  1  1/2  years  boys  should  be  53^  inches  tall. 
At  1  1  2/2  years  girls  should  be  54  inches  tall. 

At  i2l/2  years  boys  should  be  55^  inches  tall. 
At  12^/2  years  girls  should  be  56  inches  tall. 

At  131/2  years  boys  should  be  57^  inches  tall. 
At  13^/2  years  girls  should  be  58^/2  inches  tall. 

These  tables  of  figures  are  not  given  for  you  to  learn 
them,  but  that  you  may  compare  your  own  height  and 
weight  with  the  standard  for  your  age.  Your  weight 
should  be  taken  on  good  scales,  and  you  should  be  in 
your  indoor  clothing.  Your  height  should  be  taken 
without  your  shoes,  when  you  are  standing  straight 
.against  the  wall  or  on  a  measuring  machine. 

Two  things  that  affect  your  size.  —  Whether  you 
are  large  or  small  for  your  age  will  depend  largely  on 
two  things:  First,  whether  your  parents,  grand- 
parents, and  great-grandparents  were  naturally  large 


HEALTH,  SIZE  AND  GROWTH 


II 


or  small  of  stature;  second,  whether  you  have  kept 
well,  received  good  care  and  had  plenty  of  good  food 
to  keep  you  growing. 

Your  heredity,  or  the  ten- 
dency to  size  and  growth 
given  you  by  your  parents 
and  grandparents,  you  can 
not  help  nor  hinder.  But  you 
can  do  much  toward  keeping 
well,  eating  the  right  foods, 
and  thus  giving  nature  a 
chance  to  bring  you  to  your 
full  size  and  strength. 

Finding  out  about  our 
family. — Now,  after  inquir- 
ing of  your  father  and  mother 
about  the  size  of  the  mem- 
bers of  their  families,  write 
down  the  answers  to  the  fol- 
lowing questions: 

1.  What     is     the    weight 
of    your    father?      His 
height? 

2.  What     is     the    weight 
of  your  mother?     Her 
height? 

3.  The    weight    of    each    of    your    grandparents? 
Their  height? 


Taking  his  height  on  a  meas- 
uring machine.     Be  sure  to 
stand    straight    when    your 
height    is    measured 


12  HYGIENE  AND  HEALTH 

4.  Is  your  weight  greater  or  less  than  the  average 
for  your  age,  and  how  much? 

5.  Is  your  height  greater  or  less  than  the  average 
for  your  age,  and  how  much? 

Health  Problems 

1.  The  boys  and  girls  of  the  countries  that  were  recently  at 
war  in  Europe  were  nearly  all  found  to  be  underweight. 
Can  you  tell  why  they  were  underweight? 

2.  The  boys  and  girls  who  are  being  treated  in  children's  hos- 
pitals, average  less  in  size  than  those  of  the  same  age  in 
school.    Can  you  tell  why? 

3.  It  has  been  found  that  when  milk  is  selling  at  a  very  high 
price  many  babies  and  young  children,  especially  in  the 
poorer  section  of  cities,  show  more  sickness  and  do  not  grow 
so  well.    Why  is  this? 

4.  If  you  are  larger  or  if  you  are  smaller  than  the  average  for 
your  age,  how  do  you  account  for  it? 

5.  It  was  found  that  during  the  European  War  the  children 
took  diseases  more  readily  than  in  ordinary  times.    Can  you 
account  for  this? 

6.  One  of  the  chief  things  in  treating  a  person  for  tuberculosis 
is  to  make  sure  that  he  has  plenty  of  nourishing  food.     Is 
this  also  a  safeguard  against  taking  tuberculosis? 

7.  Bad  complexion  and  pimples  on  the  face  are  sometimes 
caused  by  wrong  diet.     What  rules  can  you  give  for  one 
who  wants  a  good  complexion? 


CHAPTER  III 

HEALTH   CRUSADERS 

We  never  miss  the  water  till  the  well  runs  dry,  says 
the  old  adage.  In  like  manner  we  never  know  the 
value  of  health  until  we  are  ill. 

There  are  at  any  one  time  about  three  million  people 
sick  in  the  United  States.  This  is  three  persons  out 
of  every  one  hundred.  If  you  live  in  a  town  of  one 
thousand  inhabitants,  there  are  about  thirty  of  your 
neighbors  sick  to-day  and  under  the  doctor's  care. 

Why  we  should  keep  well. — Sickness  brings  sor- 
row, worry  and  trouble.  It  checks  the  growth  of  the 
young.  It  wastes  time  and  money.  The  cost  in  the 
United  States  of  unnecessary  sickness,  or  sickness  that 
could  have  been  prevented,  is  estimated  at  a  billion 
dollars  a  year.  This  is  nearly  twice  as  much  money 
as  is  spent  on  our  schools. 

At  times  sickness  may  come  upon  us  through  no 
fault  of  our  own.  But  many  of  our  aches  and  pains 
are  the  result  of  our  own  carelessness  or  lack  of  knowl- 
edge. 

Planning  for  good  health. — The  other  day  a  boy 
I  know  went  skating.  He  is  a  fine  skater,  but  there 

13 


HYGIENE  AND  HEALTH 


was  water  on  the  ice  and  he  got  his  feet  wet.  Instead 
of  changing  his  shoes  and  stockings  when  he  came 
home,  he  sat  through  the  evening  with  his  feet  damp. 

He  is  now  down  with  a 
severe  cold,  and  the 
doctor  fears  pneumonia. 
And  all  because  Harry 
had  not  formed  the  habit 
of  attending  to  wet  feet 
the  moment  he  came 
into  the  house! 

Have  you  ever  eaten 
something  you  knew  you 
ought  not  to  eat,  and 
then  found  yourself  ill 
because  of  it?  Have 
you  never  had  tooth- 
ache from  a  decayed 
tooth  which  had  been 
neglected?  It  is  even 
possible  that  your 
weight  and  height  are 
less  now  than  they 

should  be  on  account  of  some  sickness  which  a  little 
care  might  have  prevented. 

Things  to  be  proud  of. — The  girls  and  boys  who 
read  this  book  should  be  well.  They  should  plan  for 
good  health.  They  should  be  strong,  and  not  easily 


RECESS 

Play  hard.    Put  nothing  dirty  in  your 
mouth 


HEALTH    CRUSADERS  15 

tired.  They  should  grow  fast,  and  be  free  from  aches 
and  pains.  They  should  not  take  cold  easily,  nor  be 
subject  to  headaches,  earaches,  toothaches.  They 
should  be  hungry  for  every  meal,  and  enjoy  their 
food.  They  should  not  easily  take  contagious  dis- 
eases to  which  they  may  be  exposed.  They  should 
have  the  habit  of  being  healthy  and  happy! 

A  young  friend  of  mine  in  the  sixth  grade  boasts 
that  he  has  not  lost  a  day  from  school  since  he  entered 
the  first  grade.  This  means  that  he  has  kept  well. 
He  has  not  had  to  have  the  doctor  called  to  see  him 
in  all  that  time.  I  think  he  has  a  right  to  be  proud 
of  his  record.  He  has  a  right  to  be  proud  of  his 
good  health.  And  of  course  he  is  sturdy  and 
strong  and  of  good  size.  This  is  his  reward  for 
keeping  well. 

Questions  worth  answering. — The  lessons  of  this 
book  are  to  tell  you  how  to  keep  well,  and  how  to  grow 
large  and  strong.  They  will  show  you  how  to  prevent 
sickness,  and  how  to  save  the  pain  and  trouble  it 
brings.  Let  us  now  stop  a  moment  and  answer  the 
following  questions  in  order  to  see  what  lessons  we 
most  need  to  learn. 

1.  How  many  times  have  you  been   so  ill  during 
the   past    year    that    you    had    to    take    medi- 
cine? 

2.  How  many  times  have  you  had  to  stay  in  bed 
on  account  of  sickness? 


1 6  HYGIENE  AND  HEALTH 

3.  How  many  times  have   you   had   to  have  the 
doctor? 

4.  How    much    time    have    you    lost    from    school 
or  from  work  or  from  play  because  of  being  ill? 

5.  How  much  did  your  medicine  and   the   doctor 
cost? 

6.  Have  you  had   any  pains,   aches,   sore   throat, 
colds,  or  other  troubles  which   have   not   been 
bad  enough  that  you  had  to  take  medicine  or 
stay  out  of  school? 

Now,  after  answering  these  questions,  see  whether, 
in  any  sickness  you  may  have  had,  you  can  tell  what 
brought  on  the  trouble.  If  a  cold,  how  did  you  happen 
to  take  it;  if  indigestion,  what  caused  it,  and  so  on. 
Can  you  suggest  what  you  might  have  done  to  avoid 
being  ill?  Who  or  what  was  to  blame? 

Modern  Health  Crusaders.* — You  no  doubt  know 
stories  of  the  old  Crusaders  who  fought  for  every  good 

cause  and  did  so 
many  brave  deeds 
that  we  honor  them 
to  this  day.  These 
crusaders  were  of 

Pennant  of  the  Modern  Health  Crusaders  different  ranks,  de- 
pending on  how  much  good  they  had  done  and  how 
many  battles  they  had  won.  First,  the  crusader 
was  given  the  rank  of  Page;  if  he  did  well  he  was 

*Both  plan  and  matter  are  borrowed  from  published  material  of  the  National  Tuber- 
culosis Association. 


HEALTH  CRUSADERS 


next  made  a  Squire;  and  finally  he  might  rise  to  the 
rank  of  Knight.  To  become  a  Knight  was  a  very 
high  honor. 

There  is  to-day  a  new  kind  of  crusaders,  the 
"Modern  Health  Crusaders."  The  Modern  Health 
Crusaders  is  an  organization  started  by  the  National 
Tuberculosis  Association.  It  already  has  many  mem- 
bers. Every  boy  and  girl  who  reads  this  book  may 
become  a  member  and  win  honors  like  the  crusaders 

of    old.      The     different 

ranks  that  you  can  win 

are:  first,   Page;    second, 

Squire;      third,     Knight; 

fourth,  Knight  Banneret. 
The     way     one     wins 
Squire's  Button  of     honors     as     a     Modern 

the  Modern  Health       T  T      .   ,        ^  ,  . 

Crusaders  Health    Crusader    is   by 

doing  faithfully  a  certain 

number  of  "health  chores"  each  week.  Seventy-two 
chores  done  in  one  week  make  a  perfect  score.  Here 
is  a  daily  statement  of  the  chores: 

1.  I  washed  my  hands  before  each  meal  to-day. 

2.  I  washed  not  only  my  face,  but  my  ears  and 
neck  and  I  cleaned  my  finger-nails  to-day. 

3.  I  tried  to-day  to  keep  fingers,  pencils  and  every- 
thing that  might  be  unclean  out  of  my  mouth 
and  nose. 


Knight's  Pin  of 

Modern   Health 

Crusaders 


18  HYGIENE  AND  HEALTH 

4.  f  drank  a  glass  of  water  before  each  meal  and 
before  going  to  bed,  and  drank  no  tea,  coffee 
nor  other  injurious  drinks  to-day. 

5.  I  brushed  my  teeth  thoroughly  in  the  morning 
and  in  the  evening  to-day. 

6.  I  took  ten  or  more  slow,  deep  breaths  of  fresh 
air  to-day. 

7.  I  played  outdoors  or  with  windows  open  more 
than  thirty  minutes  to-day. 

8.  I  was  in  bed  ten*  hours  or  more  last  night  and 
kept  my  window  open. 

9.  I   tried   to-day  to  sit  up  and   stand  straight, 
to  eat  slowly,  and  to  attend  to  toilet  and  each 
need  of  my  body  at  its  regular  time. 

10.  I  tried  to-day  to  keep  neat  and  cheerful  con- 
stantly and  to  be  helpful  to  others. 

11.  I  took  a  full  bath  on  each  of  two  days  of  the 
week. 

How  to  win  the  different  ranks. — In  order  to  do 
all  seventy-two  chores  in  one  week  requires  that  you 
shall  do  each  of  the  first  ten  chores  daily,  and  take  a 
full  bath  on  each  of  two  days  of  the  week.  This  is 
what  you  are  required  to  do  for  each  of  the  different 
titles: 


*Boys  and  girls  thirteen  years  of  age  may  change  this  to  "nine  hours."    Those  under 
nine  years  should  sleep  eleven  hours  at  least. 


HEALTH  CRUSADERS 


To  be  a  Page,  at  least  54  chores  in  each  of  two 

weeks. 

To  be  a  Squire,  at  least  54  chores  for  a  total  of 

five  weeks. 

To   be   a   Knight, 

at  least  54  chores 

for  a  total  of  ten 

weeks. 

To    be   a    Knight 

Banneret,  at  least 

54    chores    for    a 

total     of      fifteen 

weeks. 

The  record  of  health 
chores  must  be  carefully 
kept  on  a  blank  like  the 
one  which  follows.  When 
you  have  done  enough 
chores  for  a  title,  take 
the  record  properly  filled 
to  your  teacher  for  her  to 
approve.  She  must  be 

satisfied   with   your   cleanness   from   day  to  day,  and 
know  that  you  are  doing  your  chores  faithfully. 


Rules   for   a    "Crusader" — Fresh   air, 

study  hard,   sit  up  straight  at  your 

desk 


20 


HYGIENE  AND  HEALTH 


Health  Chore  Record  Blank.— Check  X  for  each 
day  chore  was  done: 


FIRST  WEEK 


SECOND  WEEK 


x.  Washing  hands 
before  all  meals. 

2.  Washing  face,  ears 
and   neck.     Clean- 
ing finger-nails. 

3.  Keeping   fingers, 
pencils  and   every- 
thing   unclean    out 
ol  mouth  and  nose. 
4.  Drinking  water 
before     meals    and 
bed.     No  tea,  cof- 
fee, etc. 

5.  Brushing    teeth    in 
morning    and    eve- 
ning. 

6.  Ten  slow,   deep 
breaths     of     fresh 
air. 

7.  More    than    thirty 
minutes'  play  out- 
doors,  or  with 
windows  open. 

8.  Ten  hours  or  more 
in     bed,     windows 
open. 

9.  Sitting  and  stand- 
ing   erect,    regular 
attention  to  every 
bodily  need. 

10.  Keeping   neat   and 
cheerful.       Helpful 
to  others. 

II.  Full  bath  on  each 
day    checked    (X). 

TOTAL 

Sun 

Mon 

Tue 

Wed 

Thu 

Fri 

Sat 

Sun 

Mon 

Tue 

Wed 

Thu 

Fri 

Sat 

















































—  — 

—  — 

==== 

:=== 

Note  to  the  teacher:  The  authors  strongly  urge  that  not  only  the  class  using  this  text, 
but  the  entire  school,  be  organized  into  a  band  of  Modern  Health  Crusaders.  Many  schools 
are  using  this  plan  to  establish  habits  of  hygienic  living.  The  scope  of  the  organization  is 
national.  A  letter  addressed  to  the  National  Tuberculosis  Association,  New  York,  or  to  your 
state  Junior  Red  Cross  will  bring  you  full  information  and  samples  of  blanks,  etc. 


HEALTH  CRUSADERS 


21 


Interesting  things  to  do. — Some  helpful  things 
which  members  of  the  Modern  Health  Crusaders  might 
do  are  the  following;  still  others  may  be  suggested  by 
the  teacher: 

1.  Taking  charge,  un- 
der   the    teacher's 
directions,    of    the 
opening  of  windows 
for  the  ventilation 
of  the  school  room. 

2.  Flushing  the  room 
with  all  doors  and 
windows    open    at 
recess. 

3.  Helping       conduct 
morning     "inspec- 
tion." 

4.  Keeping      room, 
halls,    toilets    and 

School  yard  clear  of    The  "Crusader"  has  formed   "friend- 
i  ,  .   ,  habits"    like    these — Glass    of    water, 

ruDbisn.  brush  teeth>  a  hot  bath  twice  a  week 

5.  Observing  whether 

laws  governing  cleanliness  are  obeyed  in  markets. 

6.  Joining     an     anti-spitting,     anti-coughing     and 
anti-sneezing  crusade. 

7.  Learning    to    make    and    apply    bandages    for 
cuts,  sprains  and  bruises. 


22  HYGIENE  AND  HEALTH 

8.  Learning    to    choose    the    proper    food     and 
neatly  pack  school  and  picnic  lunches. 

9.  Assisting  in   "tooth-brush  drill." 

10.     Demonstrating     how    to     treat    burns,    frost 
bites,  etc. 

Health  Problems 

1.  Report  on  Health  Chores. 

2.  There   are   several    million    Health    Crusaders   among   the 
school  boys  and  girls  of  this  country — will  you  be  one? 

3.  Which  of  the  eleven  health  chores  do  you  find  it  hardest  to 
remember  or  do?    If  you  form  the  habit  of  doing  this  thing 
then  it  will  be  easy— it  will  "do  itself." 

4.  How  does  one  go  about  it  to  form  a  habit?    How  does  one 
go  about  it  to  break  a  habit  he  wishes  to  be  rid  of? 

5.  I  saw  a  boy  holding  a  pencil  in  his  mouth  the  other  day. 
He  put  the  pencil  in  his  pocket  and  soon  Ned  came  and 
borrowed  it  to  write  with.     After  a  few  minutes  Ned  had 
the  pencil  in  his  mouth.      Besides  the  dirtiness  of  it,  how 
many  boys  were  in  danger  of  taking  disease? 

6.  Suppose  every  boy  and  girl  in  the  United  States  should  turn 
Health  Crusader  and  do  all  the  health  chores  regularly. 
Do  you  think  they  would  grow  larger  and  stronger?    What 
would  be  the  effect  on  the  doctors'  income? 

7.  Do  you  think  people  like  boys  and  girls  better  when  they 
are  clean,  well  and  wholesome? 


CHAPTER  IV 

* 

THE   BODY'S   NEED   OF  FOOD 

If  I  should  ask  you  why  we  need  to  eat,  I  suppose 
the  most  natural  answer  would  be  because  we  get 
hungry. 

This  seems  reason  enough.  Yet  there  are  even 
more  important  reasons  than  this.  Hunger  is  nature's 
way  of  telling  us  that  the  body  needs  food.  And  with- 
out hunger  to  remind  us  I  fear  that  we  should  often 
neglect  to  give  the  body  the  food  it  requires. 

Why  the  body  needs  food. — There  are  two  great 
reasons  why  the  body  must  have  food:  First,  to 
replace  the  worn-out  tissues  of  our  muscles,  bones, 
nerves,  etc.,  and  add  new  material  for  our  growth. 
Second,  to  supply  the  energy  needed  by  the  body  to 
do  its  work  and  keep  up  its  heat. 

Does  it  seem  strange  that  we  should  speak  of  the 
body  wearing  out?  Yet  every  tissue  of  your  body, 
its  muscles,  bones,  nerves,  and  all  other  parts,  is 
constantly  wearing  away  just  as  surely  as  your  clothes 
wear  out. 

Not  a  movement  you  make,  not  an  errand  you  run, 
not  a  game  you  play  but  thousands  upon  thousands  of 

23 


24  HYGIENE  AND  HEALTH 

the  tiny  cells  or  particles  which  make  up  the  tissues  of 
your  body  work  harder  and  so  need  more  food,  and 
wear  out  faster  and  so  need  new  material  with  which 
to  repair  themselves.  Even  the  thinking  you  do  in 
learning  this  lesson  means  more  work  by  the  brain 
cells  just  as  truly  as  your  running  means  more  work 
by  the  muscle  cells  of  your  leg.  But  you  might  say 
then  why  not  rest  always?  Why  not  save  all  these 
cells  this  wear  and  tear?  No,  a  living  cell  like  a 
healthy  boy  was  made  to  work.  It  gets  strong  and 
skilful  by  working,  and  grows  stronger  the  more  it 
works.  If  you  let  it  rest  too  much  it  will  first  sicken 
and  then  may  die.  The  important  lesson  for  us  to 
learn  is  not  to  tire  the  cells  too  much  and  to  give 
them  plenty  of  food  and  ample  time  to  rest  and  repair 
themselves. 

Replacing  worn-out  tissues. — Now  it  is  clear 
that  these  worn-out  tissues  must  be  replaced,  or  the 
body  would  soon  all  waste  away.  Our  bodies  are 
much  like  the  jack-knife  which  a  man  was  proud  of 
having  carried  for  twenty-five  years.  The  knife  had 
had  one  new  handle  and  several  new  blades  during 
that  time,  but  the  owner  still  considered  it  the  same 
old  knife. 

We  think  of  keeping  the  same  bodies  from  year  to 
year,  yet  the  old  tissues  are  constantly  being  removed 
and  new  tissues  built  in.  The  result  is  that  we  have 
almost  completely  new  bodies  every  few  years. 


THE  BODY'S  NEED  OF  FOOD 


Building    new    tissues. — We    must    also    grow. 
You   have  already  seen  hpw  the  baby  increases  its 


FROM  THIS  To  THIS 

In  a  year.    The  increase  all  came  from  the  food  which  the  baby  ate 

weight  threefold  the  first  year,  and  how  each  of  us 
continues  to  add  to  his  size  from  year  to  year  until  he 


26 


HYGIENE  AND  HEALTH 


has    reached    his    full 
stature. 

All  the  material  for 
the  repairing  of  worn- 
out  tissues  and  the  add- 
ing of  new  must  come 
from  our  food.  What 
you  eat  to-day  will  in  a 
few  hours  become  a 
part  of  your  body .  The 
potatoes,  the  bread,  the 
meat,  the  milk,  will  be- 
come muscle,  blood, 
brain,and  other  tissues. 

Supplying  energy. 
— Besides  its  supply  of 
new  tissue,  the  body 
must  also  be  supplied 
with  force  or  energy. 
It  requires  energy  to 
work,  or  play,  or  think. 
It  requires  energy  just 
to  be  alive,  even.  It 
requires  energy  also 
to  keep  up  the  heat 
of  the  body. 

Yesterday  I  stood  by  the  railway  track  and  watched 
a   long  train  sweep  by.     It  was  drawn  by  a  monster 


The  food  which  this  young  athlete  eats 

must  not  only  make  him  grow,  but  must 

also  supply  the  energy  which  he  constantly 

uses 


THE  BODY'S  NEED  OF  FOOD         27 

locomotive,  and  was  going  sixty  miles  an  hour.  I 
thought  what  an  amount  of  power,  what  energy!  As 
I  turned  from  the  train,  I  saw  two  boys  coming  down 
the  road  at  a  fast  pace.  They  were  running  a  race. 
They  flashed  past  me,  and  I  said,  "Here  is  power, 
here  is  energy  too/' 

And  so  it  was.  It  was  energy  or  force  which 
drove  both  the  engine  and  the  boys.  The  energy 
which  had  been  stored  up  in  the  coal  ages  ago  was 
set  free  by  burning  the  coal,  and  the  engine  used 
the  power  to  pull  the  train. 

Likewise,  the  energy  which  had  been  stored  up  in 
the  food  eaten  by  the  boys  was  set  free  by  burning 
the  food  in  their  bodies.  It  was  this  that  had  given 
them  the  power  and  endurance  used  in  their  race. 
Just  as  the  locomotive  is  without  power  until  it  gets 
the  energy  of  the  coal,  so  the  body  is  without  strength 
until  it  receives  the  energy  from  its  food. 

Furnishing  heat. — The  body  must  also  have  its 
supply  of  heat.  I  do  not  mean  now  the  heat  that 
comes  from  our  fires  or  from  the  sun,  but  the  heat 
that  comes  from  within  the  body  itself.  We  try  to 
keep  the  temperature  of  our  rooms  near  70  degrees. 
When  we  are  well  the  temperature  of  our  bodies  is 
about  99  degrees.  The  body  keeps  this  temperature 
even  when  we  are  out-of-doors  in  the  extreme  cold. 

Just  as  we  heat  our  houses  with  the  coal  we  feed  the 
furnace,  so  we  heat  our  bodies  with  the  food  we  eat. 


28 


HYGIENE  AND  HEALTH 


A  part  of  our  food  is  slowly  burned  up  in  the  tissues 
of  the  body  where,  instead  of  producing  a  red-hot  fire 
like  that  in  our  furnace,  it  makes  heat  enough  to  keep 
the  temperature  of  the  body  up  to  nearly  99  degrees. 
What  an  amazing  thought — thousands,  yes  millions, 
of  tiny  fires  burning  throughout  our  bodies,  but  so  well 


Having  a  good  time  out-of-doors  in  spite  of  winter's  cold  and  snows 

controlled  that  they  never  get  too  hot  nor  too  cold  as 
long  as  we  keep  well  and  have  proper  food! 

When  we  lack  food. — When  people  do  not  have 
food  enough,  they  come  to  have  a  starved  look.  They 
grow  thin  and  spindling  and  pale.  Their  bodies  are 
being  worn  away  faster  than  they  are  built  up. 

Lack  of  food  also  reduces  the  body's  energy,  so  that 
the  strength  fails.  The  poor  food  that  many  European 


THE  BODY'S  NEED  OF  FOOD  29 

people  were  obliged  to  live  on  before  the  end  of  the 
great  war  so  weakened  them  that  they  were  not  able 
to  do  more  than  half  of  the  work  expected  of  them. 
We  are  always  careful  to  feed  our  soldiers,  workmen 
and  athletes  well,  so  that  they  may  be  at  their  best 
in  strength. 

One  who  is  poorly  fed  is  unable  to  withstand  severe 
cold.  Explorers  in  the  arctic  regions  have  found  that 
they  do  not  greatly  mind  the  very  cold  weather  as  long 
as  they  have  plenty  of  good  food.  But  when  the  food 
supply  runs  low,  they  are  easily  chilled  by  the  cold. 
Their  bodies  are  then  without  fuel  to  burn. 

This  all  means,  then,  that  if  we  would  grow  fast,  if 
we  would  appear  plump  and  well-fed  instead  of  thin 
and  scrawny,  we  must  have  enough  good  food  to  eat. 
If  we  would  have  strength,  energy  and  endurance  for 
work  and  play,  if  we  would  be  able  to  stand  cold 
winters  and  stormy  weather,  we  must  give  the  body 
the  food  it  requires. 

Our  food  must  be  of  the  right  kind. — In  this 
favored  land  of  ours  there  are  very  few  who  are  obliged 
to  go  hungry.  Yet  even  in  America  there  are  some 
who  do  not  have  sufficient  food,  or  whose  food  is  not 
of  the  kind  they  require.  There  are  boys  and  girls  who 
will  never  reach  their  full  growth  and  be  as  large  and 
strong  as  nature  intended  them  to  be  simply  because 
they  do  not  have  enough  to  eat. 

Probably  few  of  the  boys  and  girls  who  read  these 


30  HYGIENE  AND  HEALTH 

words  are  so  poor  as  to  lack  food.  But  there  are  other 
things  to  take  into  account  besides  having  a  sufficient 
quantity  of  food.  The  food  must  be  of  the  right  kinds, 
and  it  must  be  -properly  prepared  and  properly  eaten. 
Our  next  lessons  will  deal  with  some  of  these  questions. 

Interesting  things  to  do. — Think  out  and  write 
down  the  answers  to  the  following  questions: 

1.  In  certain  New  York  and  Chicago  schools  where 
an  investigation  was  made  it  was    found    that 
about  one  boy  or  girl  out  of  every  twelve  regu- 
larly came  to  school  with  no  breakfast.      How 
would  you   expect    this    to    affect    their    size? 
Their  strength?    Their  quickness  to  learn?    Their 
power  to  withstand  the  winter  cold? 

2.  One   who    has    sufficient    food    of   a   kind    that 
agrees  with  him  and  causes  him  to  grow  strong 
and  sturdy  is  said  to  have  good  nutrition;  one  who 
does  not  have  enough  food,  or  one  whose  food 
fails   to   nourish   him  as  it  should,  leaving  him 
flabby,   undersized,  thin,  pale,  easily  tired   and 
unable  to  stand  severe  cold,  is  said  to  have  poor 
nutrition.     Would  you  say  that  your  nutrition 
is  good  or  poor?    By  what  signs  do  you  judge? 

3.  Another  way  to  test  your  nutrition  is  as  follows: 
With  a  tape  line  measure  the  girth  of  your  arm 
around  the  largest  part  above  the  elbow  (Do  not 
bend  the  arm).     Measure  the  girth  of  your  chest 


THE  BODY'S  NEED  OF  FOOD  31 

(Do  not  fill  the  lungs) .    Next,  multiply  your  arm 

girth  by  100;    then  divide  this  product  by  the 

girth  of  your  chest.    If  the  quotient  is  30  or  more 

it  indicates  good  nutrition;    if  less  than  30,  poor 

nutrition.    For  example,  a  boy  I  know  measures 

8.5  inches  around  his  arm  and  28  inches  around 

his    chest.      This     is     the    way    to    figure    his 

nutrition: 

8.5  X  100—850 

850-^28=30.4 

This  boy's  nutrition  is  therefore  about  up  to  the 

average. 

Facts  that  are  worth  remembering. — i.     The 

material  for  your  growth  all  comes  from  your 
food.  There  is  no  other  place  to  get  it.  If  you 
lack  food  material,  or  if  ill  health  keeps  you  from 
digesting  and  using  what  you  eat,  your  growth 
will  be  slow  and  you  will  probably  be  under  size. 

2.  All  your  force,  energy  and  endurance  come  from 
your  food.    They  can  never  be  better  than  your 
food  supply. 

3.  The  fuel  for  the  body's  heat  is  supplied  by  the 
food  we  eat,  and    a   poor   fuel   supply  for    the 
body  means  imperfect  heating  there,  just  as  lack 
of  good  coal  would  mean  poor  heating  for  our 
houses. 

4.  The  only  way  to  get  growth,  strength  and  health 
is  from  good  food,  well  cooked  and  properly  eaten. 


CHAPTER  V 

WHAT  WE   EAT 

It  would  seem  strange,  would  it  not,  for  a  person  to 
starve  to  death  while  he  had  an  abundance  of  food? 
Yet  this  would  be  possible  if  he  were  allowed  but  one 
single  kind  of  food.  If  you  should  give  me  plenty  of 
bread,  for  example,  and  nothing  else,  I  should  certainly 
finally  die  of  starvation.  The  result  would  be  the  same 
if  you  gave  me  nothing  but  lean  meat.  One  can  not 
live  on  any  one  such  food  as  bread  or  meat  alone, 
necessary  as  both  are  in  our  diet. 

The  two  kinds  of  food  we  need. — The  reason  for 
this  becomes  clear  when  we  remember  that  the  body 
must  have  both  tissue  building  and  energy  producing 
foods.  Now,  not  all  foods  are  capable  of  serving 
both  of  these  purposes.  One  would  surely  starve  if  he 
ate  ever  so  much  of  a  food  that  would  build  tissues,  but 
would  not  produce  energy;  and  he  would  starve  just 
as  readily  if  he  were  to  eat  the  energy  producers,  but 
lacked  the  tissue  builders. 

None  of  us  is  in  danger  of  actual  starvation,  of 
course,  for  we  do  not  try  to  live  on  one  single  kind  of 
food.  Yet  it  is  very  necessary  that  we  so  choose  our 

32 


WHAT  WE  EAT  33 

food  that  we  shall  have  a  " balanced  ration. "  By  a 
balanced  ration  is  meant  a  variety  of  food  so  chosen  as 
to  supply  the  body  with  all  the  different  food  materials 
it  requires. 

What  happens  if  we  do  not  have  a  "balanced 
ration." — If  we  leave  out  of  our  diet  the  foods  that 
are  intended  to  build  up  new  tissues,  then  we  shall  not 
grow  as  fast  as  we  should,  and  may  even  lose  in  weight 
and  strength. 

If,  on  the  other  hand,  our  diet  is  short  in  the  foods 
that  supply  energy,  we  shall  be  weak  and  lack  ambition 
and  endurance.  In  either  case  our  health  will  not  be 
good,  and  we  shall  be  more  liable  to  sickness  and  dis- 
ease. 

It  is  therefore  possible,  you  see,  that  though  all  the 
boys  and  girls  who  study  this  book  may  have  enough 
to  eat,  they  may  not  always  live  on  a  properly  balanced 
diet,  and  some  of  you  may  not  be  growing  as  fast  as  you 
should  from  lack  of  tissue  builders  in  your  diet.  Others 
may  not  be  able  to  run  as  fast,  or  lift  as  much,  or  learn 
as  easily,  or  resist  disease  as  well  as  they  ought  because 
they  do  not  eat  the  right  kinds  of  food. 

There  are  some  foods  that  contain  almost  every  ele- 
ment that  the  body  needs,  and  which  should  therefore 
form  an  important  part  of  our  diet. 

The  best  foods. — Milk  is  one  such  food.  The  baby 
lives  and  thrives  on  milk  alone.  Milk  continues  to  be 
one  of  our  most  necessary  foods  throughout  our  life. 


34 


HYGIENE  AND  HEALTH 


Especially  should  boys  and  girls  drink  plenty  of  good 
milk.  For  milk  contains  materials  both  for  tissue 
building  and  energy.  Milk  therefore  favors  rapid 
growth,  and  will  make  us  strong  and  sturdy. 

Eggs  are  also  one  of  our  best  foods.     Did  you  ever 
think  that  an  egg  contains  within  its  shell  everything 


These  young  Americans  will  need  more  food-fuel  during  the  winter 
than  in  the  summer  months 

that  finally  goes  to  make  up  the  body  of  the  chick  that 
hatches  from  it?  The  materials  that  are  needed  to 
make  muscles,  bones,  brain,  blood  and  every  other 
tissue  have  all  been  provided  in  just  the  right  propor- 
tions. 

When  we  eat  an  egg  we  are  therefore  getting  precisely 
the  materials  we  need  for  our  own  tissues,  instead  of 
allowing  them  to  grow  into  the  tissues  of  a  chicken. 


WHAT  WE  EAT  35 

Wheat  bread  an  important  food. — Bread  made 
from  wheat  is  so  important  a  food  that  it  is  called  the 
"staff  of  life."  Whatever  else  we  may  have  on  our 
tables,  we  usually  have  plenty  of  bread.  Yet  it  is  only 
in  recent  times  that  it  has  been  possible  to  raise  enough 
wheat  so  that  the  common  people  could  have  it  for 
their  daily  food. 

And  even  yet  there  are  many  millions  of  people  in 
India,  China  and  some  other  parts  of  the  world  who 
have  never  tasted  wheat  bread.  Instead  of  wheat, 
they  eat  rice,  rye,  corn  or  other  grains.  During  the, 
European  war  many  Americans  went  without  wheat 
that  we  might  ship  it  to  our  allies. 

Almost  all  the  common  cereals  make  excellent  foods 
when  eaten  along  with  meats,  milk,  eggs,  butter,  sugar 
and  the  like.  One  of  the  best  ways  in  which  cereals  can 
be  prepared  is  in  the  form  of  gruel,  porridge,  or  the 
prepared  breakfast  foods  that  come  to  us  in  packages. 

Meat  foods. — Meat  is  an  excellent  part  of  our  diet, 
though  it  does  not  need  to  be  eaten  in  large  quantities. 
Once  a  day  is  often  enough  to  eat  meat.  In  fact  three  or 
four  times  a  week  is  sufficient  if  we  have  eggs  and  milk. 

Lean  meat  goes  largely  to  the  building  up  of  our 
tissues  for  the  growth  and  repair  of  the  body.  Fat 
meat  is  used  chiefly  in  the  production  of  the  body's 
heat.  The  Eskimos  eat  large  quantities  of  seal 
blubber,  or  fat,  and  this  enables  them  to  withstand  the 
extreme  cold  of  the  far  North. 


36  HYGIENE  AND  HEALTH 

Fruits  and  vegetables. — One  should  eat  freely  of 
the  common  fruits  and  vegetables.  This  is  highly  im- 
portant for  health  and  growth.  An  old  saying  is  that 
"an  apple  a  day  keeps  the  doctor  away."  Fresh 
fruits  and  vegetables  should  be  eaten  daily  when  they 
are  in  season.  Stored,  canned  or  dried  fruits  and 


Milk,  bread,  vegetables  and  fruits  are  necessary  foods 

vegetables  should  form  a  regular  part  of  the  daily 
ration  during  the  winter.  Hardly  a  meal,  certainly  not 
a  day,  should  pass  without  our  eating  a  liberal  amount 
of  this  most  necessary  kind  of  food.  Nearly  all  veg- 
etables are  good  energy  producers. 

Sugar. — Everybody  likes  sugar  and  candy.  These 
should  form  a  part  of  our  food,  but  not  in  too  great 
quantities.  During  the  great  war  many  of  our  allies 


WHAT  WE  EAT  37 

in  Europe  were  suffering  for  want  of  sugar,  and  we  were 
asked  to  send  them  what  we  could  spare. 

It  would  seem  that  we  ought  to  be  able  to  spare  no 
small  amount,  for  on  the  average  each  of  us  eats  more 
than  eighty  pounds  of  sugar  a  year,  either  in  sweetening 
our  food  and  drink  or  making  candy.  About  half 
this  ci.Jiount  is  all  we  really  need  as  food.  Sugar  goes 
to  the  producing  of  energy.  It  does  not  build  body 
tissues. 

Water. — Nor  must  we  forget  water  as  an  important 
part  of  our  food.  While  water  does  not  directly  re- 
build our  tissues  nor  supply  energy,  it  is  highly  neces- 
sary to  the  welfare  of  the  body.  Indeed,  one  can  go 
without  solid  food  much  longer  than  he  can  without 
water.  Men  lost  on  the  desert  or  adrift  on  the  ocean 
without  water  to  drink  suffer  cruelly,  and  even  go 
insane  from  thirst. 

The  body's  need  for  water  does  not  seem  strange 
when  we  know  that  about  two-thirds  of  our  weight  is 
made  up  of  the  water  in  our  tissues.  This  means  that 
if  you  now  weigh  seventy-five  pounds,  the  water  in 
your  muscles,  bones,  fat,  blood,  and  other  tissues 
weighs  fully  fifty  pounds.  The  really  solid  part  of  you 
therefore  weighs  only  about  twenty-five  pounds.  No 
wonder  that  you  need  water  as  a  part  of  your  food! 

We  get  a  part  of  the  water  we  require  in  the  foods 
we  eat,  for  most  foods  contain  a  large  proportion  of 
water.  Potatoes,  for  example,  are  about  seventy-five 


38  HYGIENE  AND  HEALTH 

per  cent,  water;   meat  is  from  sixty  to  eighty  per  cent, 
water;    and  milk  nearly  ninety  per  cent,  water. 

Yet  we  do  not  secure  water  enough  in  such  ways, 
and  must  constantly  drink  a  considerable  amount. 
Many  people  do  not  drink  enough  water  to  keep  them 
in  the  best  of  health  and  strength.  Boys  and  girls 
from  ten  to  twelve  years  of  age  should  usually  drink 
as  much  as  three  or  four  pints  of  pure  water  each  day. 
Even  though  one  does  not  feel  thirsty  he  should,  never- 
theless, drink  his  full  amount  of  water. 

Interesting  questions  to  answer. — i.  Prisoners 
who  disobey  rules  in  the  penitentiary  are  some- 
times punished  by  being  fed  on  bread  and  water. 
Bread  is  a  good  tissue  builder,  but  not  a  good 
energy  producer.  How  do  you  think  this  kind 
of  diet  will  affect  a  man  who  lives  on  it  for  a 
number  of  weeks? 

2.  Butter  and  fat  meat  are  heat  producing  foods. 
Would  you  expect  the  people  who  live  in  hot  or 
in  cold  climates  to  care  most  for  them?  When  do 
we  care  most  for  them,  in  summer  or  in  winter? 

3.  We  use  up  energy  faster  when  we  labor  or  play 
hard   than  when  we  are   idle.     We  also  use  up 
energy  faster  when    the  weather   is   cold    than 
when  it  is  hot.     When  should  you  naturally  get 
more  hungry  and  eat  more  food,  on  days  when 
you  are  not  exercising  much,  or  when  you  are 
active?     In  winter  or  in  summer? 


WHAT  WE  EAT  39 

Facts  to  be  remembered. — The  important  lessons 
which  we  should  remember  from  this  chapter  might 
be  stated  as  follows: 

We  should  not  live  on  too  narrow  a  range  of 
foods. 

Our  diet  should  be  simple.  It  should  include  all 
great  groups  of  foods,  such  as  milk  and  eggs,  the 
cereal  grains,  vegetables,  fruits,  meats,  sweets, 
and  pure  water. 

We  must  have  both  the  tissue  builders  and  en- 
ergy producers.  If  we  eat  a  varied  diet  we  shall 
be  sure  to  have  both  in  abundance. 

Health  Problems 

1.  Report  on  Health  Chores. 

2.  Make  a  list  of  all  that  you  have  had  to  eat  and  to  drink  in 
the  last  twenty-four  hours.     Have  you  eaten  anything  that 
does  not  "agree"  with  you?    Have  you  had.  enough  nourish- 
ing food?    Have  you  had  enough  variety? 

3.  Jamie  is  rather  hard  to  cook  for.     He  complains  that  he 
"does  not  like  vegetables."    He  rebels  at  oatmeal  and  cream, 
and  wants  coffee  instead  of  milk  to  drink.     Jamie  is  about 
ten  pounds  underweight.     Can  you  guess  why? 

4.  Jennie  has  noticed  that,  though  she  may  feel  rather  tired 
and  weak  just  before  a  meal,  she  feels  strong  and  ready  for 
play  or  work  after  she  has  eaten.     Can  you  explain  the 
reason  ? 

5.  Do  you  ever  go  to  the  table  hungry  and  then  not  feel  like 
eating  much  after  you  have  started  your  meal?    If  so,  what 
is  the  matter? 


CHAPTER  VI 

PLANNING   OUR   MEALS 

What  shall  we  have  for  breakfast?  What  shall  we 
have  for  dinner?  What  shall  we  have  for  supper? 
And,  if  we  carry  our  lunch  to  school,  what  shall  we 
take? 

Perhaps  you  will  say,  "Whatever  our  mothers  pre- 
pare for  us."  Or  you  may  name  the  one  thing  you 
like  best.  Yet  no  doubt  your  mother  would  like  you 
to  be  able  to  help  plan  for  your  meals;  and  you  will, 
of  course,  want  something  besides  the  particular  food 
you  like  best. 

First  of  all,  our  meals  should  be  palatable;  we 
should  like  our  food  and  enjoy  eating  it.  This  is  not 
just  for  the  pleasure  we  may  get  from  our  meals, 
though  that  is  worth  while.  It  is  chiefly  because  our 
stomachs  digest  better  and  we  get  more  good  from 
food  that  we  enjoy. 

Why  our  food  should  be  palatable. — You  have 
noticed  that  your  mouth  "waters"  when  you  see 
something  you  especially  like  to  eat.  But  your  mouth 
never  waters  for  a  dose  of  medicine  or  a  dish  of  food 
that  you  dislike, 

40 


PLANNING  OUR  MEALS  41 

Now  this  watering  of  the  mouth  is  caused  by  the 
saliva,  which  begins  to  flow  at  the  thought  or  sight  of 
pleasing  food.  A  similar  liquid  called  gastric  juice 
begins  to  flow  in  the  stomach  whenever  the  saliva 
starts.  And  these  are  the  two  chief  fluids  that  bring 


The  fun  of  outdoor  cooking 

about  the  digestion  of  our  food.  If  they  flow  freely  the 
food  is  properly  digested.  If  they  fail  to  flow,  the  di- 
gestion is  hindered. 

Why  meal-time  should  be  cheerful.— Pleasing  and 

attractive  surroundings  as  well  as  a  palatable  taste  help 
us  to  enjoy  our  meals.  A  well  set  table,  dishes  of  food 
well  served  and  attractively  arranged,  pleasant  conver- 
sation, laughter  and  cheer  are  good  for  the  digestion. 


42  HYGIENE  AND  HEALTH 

On  the  other  hand,  food  that  does  not  look  attrac- 
tive nor  have  a  pleasing  taste,  or  conversation  that 
makes  us  gloomy  or  unhappy  is  sure  to  hinder 
digestion  and  take  something  from  the  value  of 
the  meal. 

What  an  experiment  on  a  dog  showed. —  A  num- 
ber of  years  ago  several  French  physicians  performed 
an  interesting  experiment  on  a  dog.  They  cut  in  his 
neck  a  small  slit  through  which  they  could  force  food 
into  the  dog's  stomach  without  the  dog  eating  it  or 
even  seeing  the  food. 

They  had  a  device  fixed  so  they  could  watch  what 
was  taking  place  in  the  stomach.  They  found  that 
food  passed  into  the  stomach  through  this  cut  would 
remain  for  several  hours  without  digestion  taking  place. 
The  gastric  juice  did  not  flow  out  and  mix  with  the 
food. 

They  then  brought  more  food  to  the  dog  and  this 
time  allowed  him  to  see  it  and  smell  it.  The  dog 
wanted  the  food  and  his  mouth  watered  for  it,  but 
they  did  not  give  him  any.  Immediately,  however, 
the  gastric  juice  began  to  flow  in  the  stomach  and 
digestion  started  upon  the  food  that  had  remained 
undigested  for  several  hours. 

As  soon  as  the  dog  wanted  the  food  and  had  pleasant 
thoughts  of  eating,  his  stomach  was  ready  to  begin 
work.  Eating  and  liking  the  food  were  good  for  the 
digestion. 


PLANNING  OUR  MEALS 


43 


Right  and  wrong  kinds  of  breakfasts. — Break- 
fast is  often  a  hurried  and  rather  unsatisfactory  meal. 
I  have  known  boys  and  girls  to  get  up  late,  snatch  a 
few  bites,  and  rush  off  to  school  without  having  time 


Having  a  schoolroom  lunch  of  milk  and  cookies.     Paper  cups  are 
used  and  then  destroyed,  so  that  no  one  drinks  out  of  a  cup  that 
has   been   used    by   another 

to  eat  properly.  School  physicians  in  Boston  and  New 
York  found  that  nearly  one-half  of  the  children  had 
had  an  unsatisfactory  breakfast.  No  wonder  that 
many  of  them  were  thin  and  skinny! 

Now  what  foods  make  a  good  breakfast?  Dr. 
Earnest  Hoag,  who  was  studying  children's  dietaries 
among  certain  schools  of  Minnesota,  discovered  that 


44  HYGIENE  AND  HEALTH 

eighty-five  per  cent,  of  the  children  had  no  fruit  for 
breakfast.  More  than  half  of  them  had  a  breakfast 
that  contained  no  tissue  building  foods.  Such  break- 
fasts are  unsatisfactory.  They  are  a  poor  start  for 
the  day! 

How  to  plan  our  breakfasts. — Let  us  suppose  that 
we  are  planning  the  breakfasts  for  the  boys  and  girls 
of  our  class  for  a  week.  What  shall  we  have?  We  shall 
want  a  variety,  of  course,  and  will  not  have  just  the 
same  things  every  morning.  But  there  are  some 
classes  of  food  that  we  will  always  have  in  some  form. 

Fruit,  fresh  if  possible,  such  as  baked  apple,  bananas, 
oranges,  grapes,  prunes,  berries,  or  grapefruit.  It  is 
better  that  the  fruit  be  eaten  first. 

Cereal  and  cream.  Oat  meal,  cream  of  wheat, 
puffed  rice,  or  any  of  the  prepared  breakfast  foods  are 
good. 

Bread  and  butter.  It  is  best  to  have  the  bread 
toasted  crisp,  at  least  for  some  of  the  days  of  the  week. 
Warm  bread  should  usually  not  be  eaten.  Take  a 
piece  of  warm  bread  and  mold  it  like  a  marble,  and  you 
will  see  how  heavy  and  soggy  it  becomes. 

Milk  or  cocoa.  Boys  and  girls  should  drink  milk 
or  cocoa  instead  of  coffee  or  tea,  which  are  a  stimulant 
rather  than  a  food. 

If  we  are  to  have  meat  for  dinner  we  shall  not  need 
any  for  breakfast,  providing  we  have  sufficient  foods 
of  other  kinds. 


PLANNING  OUR  MEALS  45 

Breakfast  plans  for  a  week. — Now  from  the 
groups  of  foods  just  given  plan  your  breakfasts  for  one 
week,  showing  just  what  you  will  serve  each  day. 
The  following  is  a  sample  for  one  day's  breakfast: 

Sliced  Orange 
Oatmeal  and  Cream  Whole  Wheat  Muffins 

Milk  Flavored  with  Cocoa 

How    does    the    list    of    breakfasts    you    have 
planned  compare  with  what  you  actually  had  for 
your  breakfasts  for  the  last  week? 
How  to  plan  our  dinners. — Now  about  our  din- 
ners, which  may  come  either  at  noon  or  in  the  evening. 
When  we  have  to  go  home  some  distance  at  noon  for 
our  dinners  it  is  often  hard  not  to  be  hurried.     But, 
since  dinner  is  our  heaviest  meal,  it  should  be  eaten 
slowly   and   with    time    to   enjoy   it.      Dinner   should 
have  a  larger  variety  of  foods  and  also  a  larger  quantity 
than  breakfast.     Meat  and  vegetables  are  an  impor- 
tant part  of  the  dinner.     The  following  are  groups  of 
foods  suitable  for  dinner: 

Meats.  Beef,  broiled,  baked  or  made  into  hamburg 
steak.  Pork  is  not  a  good  food  for  children.  Fish, 
broiled  or  made  into  balls.  Chicken,  stewed  or  baked. 
Mutton,  broiled  or  baked. 

Vegetables.  Potatoes  boiled  or  baked,  sweet  pota- 
toes, peas,  beans,  carrots,  onions,  tomatoes,  cabbage, 
cauliflower,  spinach,  etc.  Two  vegetables  should  be 
served  at  dinner. 


46 


HYGIENE  AND  HEALTH 


Fruity  as  apples  or  other  fresh  fruits,  cranberry  sauce, 
canned  fruits. 

Dessert.  Puddings,  such  as  rice,  tapioca,  Charlotte- 
russe,  baked  custard,  ice-cream.  Pies  are  not  as  good 
desserts,  especially  for  children,  as  puddings. 


A  boys'  garden  club  raises  valuable  food  and  has  real  enjoy- 
ment while  doing  it 

Dinner  plans  for  a  week. — Plan  the  dinners  which 
you  would  like  for  one  week,  making  sure  that  you 
provide  for  such  foods  as  will  favor  your  growth  and 
health.  The  following  is  a  sample  for  one  day's 
dinner: 

Roast  beef  with  brown  gravy        Mashed  potatoes 

Creamed  peas         Cranberry  sauce 
Rice  pudding  with  lemon  sauce         Milk 


PLANNING  OUR  MEALS  47 

Now  make  a  list  of  what  you  actually  had  for 
your  dinners  for  the  past  week,  and  compare  with 
your  plan.  What  differences  do  you  note? 

Supper  plans. — For  supper  or  for  luncheon,  we  may 
have  much  the  same  classes  of  foods  as  for  breakfast 
and  dinner,  but  they  may  be  differently  prepared. 
This  will  give  variety  and  make  them  palatable. 

Make  a  plan  for  your  suppers  for  one  week. 
The  following  is  a  sample  for  one  day: 

Creamed  tomato  soup 

Whole  wheat  bread,  with  butter     One  poached  egg 

Baked  apple  Cake 

Milk 

How  does  the  list  you  have  made  correspond 
with  the  suppers  you  usually  have? 

Planning  the  school  lunch. — If  we  must  carry 
our  lunch  to  school,  instead  of  having  dinner  at  home, 
we  should  then  have  dinner  in  the  evening.  A  school 
lunch  should  be  neatly  and  attractively  packed. 
Sandwiches,  cake,  cheese  and  other  moist  foods  should 
be  wrapped  in  paraffin  paper  to  keep  them  fresh  and 
clean.  The  following  are  samples  of  good  school 
lunches: 

Cup  of  baked  beans  Jam  sandwich 

Egg  sandwich       Plain  bread  and  butter  sandwich 

Ginger  cookies          Stuffed  dates 


48  HYGIENE  AND  HEALTH 

Hot  potato  soup  (made  at  school)         One  apple 

Cup  cottage  cheese  Bread  and  butter 

Two  frosted  cakes 

Make  a  plan  for  your  school  lunches  for  one 


Canning  food  prevents  food  waste  and  furnishes  pleasant 
occupation  for  girls 

week.  Tell  or  show  how  you  would  prepare  and 
pack  each  article  so  that  it  will  keep  well  and 
look  neat  and  attractive. 

Foods  that  are  not  good  for  us. — There  are  some 
things  used  for  food  by  many  people  that  are  not  good, 
especially  for  growing  children.  These  things  we 


PLANNING  OUR  MEALS  49 

should  not  make  a  regular  part  of  our  diet.     Some 
such  articles  to  be  avoided  are  the  following: 

Hot  bread  or  biscuits.    They  are  hard  to  digest. 

Griddle  cakes  for  breakfast.    Cereals  are  better. 

All  kinds  of  pie.    Puddings,  ice-cream  and  fruits 
are  preferable. 

Fried  meats  of  every  kind.     Meats  should  be 
broiled  or  baked. 

Fried  potatoes,  fried  bread,  fried  mush  or  other 
fried  foods. 

Candy,    except   at   meal-time,   or   too  much  of 
sweets  at  any  time. 

Ice-cream  cones,  sodas,  or  iced  drinks  at   soda 
fountains  between  meals. 

Health  Problems 

1.  Report  on  Health  Chores. 

2.  Mary  and  Grace  were  each  given  fifteen  cents  with  which  to 
buy  their  lunch  at  noon  when  they  go  to  school.     Mary 
bought  hot  soup,  a  baked  potato,  and  a  slice  of  bread  and 
butter  and  a  small  dish  of  ice-cream.     Grace  bought  ten 
cents'  worth  of  candy  and  a  sandwich.     Who  made  the 
better  bargain,  and  why? 

3.  Henry  says  he  doesn't  like  cereal  and  cream  or  eggs  for 
breakfast,  but  wants  his  mother  to  give  buckwheat  cakes 
and  sirup  every  morning.     What  do  you   think  Henry's 
mother  ought  to  do  about  it? 

4.  Elizabeth  likes  to  eat  fudge  and  usually  has  several  pieces 
when  she  comes  home  from  school.    She  is  not  hungry  for 
supper.    What  would  you  recommend? 


CHAPTER  VII 

LEARNING   TO   EAT 

Eating  is  so  natural  and  easy  that  it  seems  strange 
to  speak  of  learning  to  eat.  Yet  all  of  us  have  had  to 
learn  to  eat. 

To  understand  this,  you  need  but  to  observe  the 
baby  in  his  first  attempts  to  feed  himself.  He  often 
makes  a  rather  sorry  mess  of  things,  and  we  excuse 
him  by  saying  he  will  learn  better  by  and  by. 

Every  one  wants,  of  course,  to  be  dainty  and  clean 
about  his  eating.  For  our  manners  and  good  breeding 
never  stand  out  more  plainly  than  when  we  are  at  the 
table.  No  one  admires  the  greedy  way  in  which  pigs 
eat,  nor  would  any  one  want  it  said  of  himself  that 
"he  eats  like  a  pig."  Well-bred  people  therefore  learn 
to  eat  quietly,  not  making  unnecessary  noises  as  they 
chew  or  swallow  their  food. 

Why  we  should  eat  slowly. — Besides  not  being 
good  manners,  there  is  another  reason  why  we  should 
not  eat  rapidly.  It  takes  time  to  chew  one's  food  and 
get  it  ready  for  swallowing.  Food  that  is  swallowed 
without  proper  chewing  is  not  well  mixed  with  the 
saliva.  It  comes  to  the  stomach  in  coarse  chunks. 

50 


LEARNING  TO  EAT  51 

The  stomach  then  has  to  work  much  harder  to  digest 
it  than  if  it  had  been  well  chewed.  In  fact,  some  of  the 
coarser  lumps  may  never  be  digested  at  all,  and  hence 
much  of  their  food  value  is  lost  and  they  cause  indi- 
gestion. 

Chickens  can  gulp  their  food  down,  since  they  have 
gizzards.  Chickens  keep  in  their  gizzards  gravel, 
pieces  of  glass  and  other  hard  substances  which  help 
grind  their  food  after  it  is  swallowed.  Since  we  do  not 
have  gizzards,  we  should  not  swallow  our  food  without 
chewing,  the  way  chickens  do. 

When  we  are  tempted  to  eat  too  much. — There 
is  sometimes  a  temptation  to  eat  too  much  at  one 
time.  Some  day  we  find  that  mother  has  prepared 
shortcake,  dumplings,  or  some  pudding  that  we  espe- 
cially like.  We  are  very  hungry,  and  it  seems  that  we 
can  not  get  enough  of  it.  We  eat  and  eat  until  we 
finally  discover  that  we  are  somewhat  uncomfortable. 
We  feel  sleepy  and  heavy,  have  a  headache,  or  may 
even  be  ill  after  the  meal.  Indigestion  may  follow, 
with  bitter  doses  of  medicine. 

Of  course  this  manner  of  eating  is  not  good  for  us. 
Whenever  the  stomach  is  given  more  food  than  it  needs 
or  can  take  care  of  without  distress,  harm  has  been 
done.  We  have  in  some  degree  injured  our  health. 

Do  you  not  think  that  stuffing  ourselves  in  such  a 
way  also  suggests  somewhat  the  piggishness  which  we 
do  not  admire  in  our  four-footed  friends  out  in  the 


HYGIENE  AND  HEALTH 


pen?  It  is  a  good  rule  to  continue  eating  until  we  are 
no  longer  really  hungry,  but  to  stop  when  we  could 
still  eat  a  little  more. 

Eating  between  meals. — What  boy  or  girl  has  not 
sometimes  become  hungry  between  meals  and  run 
into  the  house  begging  mother  for  a  "piece"!  Under 
ordinary  circumstances  we  should 
eat  three  good  meals  a  day  and  not 
eat  between  meals. 

One  can  see  the  reason  for  this 
when  he  knows  that  the  stomach 
requires  several  hours  of  hard  work 
to  digest  the  meal  we  usually  eat. 
New  food  taken  into  the  stomach 
disturbs  the  digestion  of  the  food 
already  there. 

Especially  should  we  avoid  the 
soda  fountain  habit.  Of  course  we 
may  like  the  good  things  that  are 
sold  there,  but  we  would  be  much 
better  off  without  most  of  them. 
They  are  bad  for  the  digestion,  and 
they  spoil  our  appetite  for  the  next 
meal.  The  soda  fountain  habit  also  leads  us  to  spend 
money  which  would  be  better  used  for  other  things. 

Learning  to  control  our  desires. — We  sometimes 
like  a  certain  article  of  food  that  does  not  agree  with 
us.  Surely  most  of  us  can  think  of  some  such  foods. 


"Piecing"     between 

meals   is   not  a   good 

habit 


LEARNING  TO  EAT  53 

One  schoolgirl  remarked  in  my  hearing  that  chocolate 
creams  always  made  her  sick,  but  that  she  liked  them 
so  well  she  was  going  to  eat  some.  Do  you  not 
think  she  was  rather  weak  and  foolish? 

We  may  like  peanuts  or  fudge  or  pickles,  but  that  is 
no  reason  for  eating  them  if  they  do  not  agree  with  us. 
We  should  be  the  masters  of  our  appetites  and  not  let 
them  control  us! 

Coffee  and  tea  are  not  good  drinks  for  us  during 
the  period  of  our  growth.  They  are  not  true  foods. 
They  contain  stimulants  which  the  young  do  not 
need,  and  they  have  almost  no  nourishment  to  add 
to  our  growth  or  strength.  Milk  should  be  the  chief 
drink  with  our  meals.  Every  boy  and  girl  who  drinks 
coffee  and  tea  instead  of  milk  is  hindering  growth  and 
full  development. 

Learning  to  like  certain  foods. — There  are  certain 
foods  that  wre  must  learn  to  like.  When  we  first  try 
them  we  do  not  like  them,  but  after  eating  them  for  a 
time  they  become  very  palatable  to  us.  I  have  a 
young  friend  who  does  not  like  potatoes.  Another 
boy  I  know  eats  almost  no  vegetables;  he  says  he  does 
not  like  them.  Perhaps  some  who  study  this  book 
may  not  like  eggs;  others  may  balk  at  drinking  milk; 
and  still  others  may  avoid  meat. 

Often  our  dislike  for  some  common  article  of  food  is 
a  mere  whim,  or  comes  because  we  have  not  eaten  it 
long  enough  to  learn  to  like  it.  It  is  more  than  likely 


54  HYGIENE  AND  HEALTH 

that  we  could  cure  most  of  our  dislikes  of  this  kind  by 
simply  determining  that  we  will  eat  the  food,  and  that 
we  will  learn  to  like  it. 

We  should  try  to  like  all  the  common  foods  that 
other  people  are  daily  eating.  We  should  have  as  few 
dislikes  as  possible.  Cultivating  the  habit  of  eating 
many  different  varieties  of  food  will  give  us  better 
range  for  our  diet.  It  will  also  save  us  from  being 
finicky,  and  from  making  unnecessary  trouble  for 
those  who  provide  our  meals. 

Interesting  things  to  do. — i.  Make  a  list  of  the 
foods  you  do  not  like.  Which  of  these  are 
especially  desirable  foods?  Are  you  willing  to 
try  learning  to  like  them? 

2.  Make  a  list  of  any  foods  that  seem  to  disagree 
with  you.    Are  you  willing  to  keep  from  eating 
such  foods? 

3.  Are  you  in  the  habit  of  piecing  between  meals? 
If  so,  suppose  you  try  eating  just  a  little  more 
at  meal  time  and  then  determine   not   to   eat 
between  meals  even  if  you  do  get  hungry.    You 
can  soon  break  yourself  of  the  bad  habit. 

Good  habits  to  form. — The  following  are  some  of 
the  eating  habits  especially  to  be  cultivated: 

Being  quiet,  orderly,  dainty,  cheerful  and  happy 
at  the  table. 

Learning  to  eat  the  foods  others  eat  unless  we 
find  some  that  disagree  with  us. 


LEARNING  TO  EAT  55 

Refusing  to  eat  things  we  know  are  not  good 
for  us,  even  if  we  like  them.  This  may  include 
coffee  or  tea,  candy,  ice-cream  cones  or  other 
such  things  between  meals. 

Stopping  short  of  over-eating  even  with  foods 
we  greatly  like. 

Health  Problems 

1.  Report  on  Health  Chores. 

2.  When  Margaret  came  home  from  the  party  she  told  her 
mother  that  she  had  had  a  good  time  except  that  she  sat 
beside  Jimmie  at  supper  and  that  he  "ate  like  a  little  pig." 
What  ought  Jimmie  to  do  about  it? 

3.  Tom  said  he  had  a  good  time  at  the  party  except  that  he 
ate  too  much  and  was  uncomfortable.     What  do  you  sup- 
pose the  hostess  thought  about  Tom's  eating? 

4.  How  long  should  you  chew  each  mouthful  of  food? 

5.  Suppose  you  were  asked  to  make  five  rules  about  how  to 
conduct  oneself  at  the  table,  what  would  they  be? 

6.  Last  year  Harry  said  he  did  not  like  either  beets  or  celery. 
This  year  he  likes  both.     He   has  learned  to  like  them. 
What  foods  have  you  learned  to  like? 

7.  What   bad   table   habits   have   you  observed  (do  not  give 
names),  and  how  should  they  be  corrected? 

8.  Are  you  at  present  trying  to  form  any  new  good  habits 
about  eating,  or  to  break  any  bad  ones? 


CHAPTER  VIII 

GOOD  AND   BAD   MICROBES 

Everybody  has  read  fairy  stories,  and  knows  that 
some  fairies  are  good  and  some  are  bad.  It  is  likely 
that  fairies  are  altogether  make-believe,  but  I  want  to 
tell  you  a  true  story  as  wonderful  as  any  fairy  story. 
This  is  about  tiny  creatures  that  we  call  microbes. 

The  microbes  are  all  about  us,  though  so  small  that 
we  can  not  see  them  without  a  microscope.  They 
float  in  the  air;  we  draw  many  of  them  into  the 
lungs  with  every  breath.  They  swarm  in  the  water 
we  drink.  They  are  found  in  our  food.  Hundreds  of  them 
are  sticking  to  the  feet  of  the  fly  which  alights  on  our 
dish. 

Where  microbes  are  found. — Microbes  are  also 
found  in  the  soil.  They  cling  to  our  bodies,  and  attach 
themselves  to  our  clothing.  They  even  enter  our 
bodies,  and  are  found  in  our  blood,  in  our  stomach, 
and  in  our  lungs.  They  get  into  a  scratch  or  a  cut 
and  cause  it  to  fester.  In  fact  it  would  be  hard  to  find 
anywhere  in  the  world  a  nook  or  corner  which  does 
not  serve  as  the  home  for  many  millions  of  these  very 
small  beings. 

56 


GOOD  AND  BAD  MICROBES 


57 


Now  some  of  the  microbes  belong  to  the  animal 
kingdom,  but  most  of  them  are  plants.  We  shall  be 
interested  in  our  story  chiefly  in  plant  microbes,  one 
great  group  of  which  are  called  bacteria.  Whether 
we  use  the  word  microbe  or  the  word  bacteria,  then  you 
are  to  think  of  tiny  plants  too  small  to  be  seen. 

The  work  of  microbes. — Most  bacteria  are  harm- 
less, but  a  few  bring  us  disease.  Most  help  in  pro- 
ducing our  food,  while  a  few  kinds  rob  us  of  our  food 
by  taking  it  for  themselves. 


Microbes  which  cause  fruit  to  decay         Microbes  found  in  the  mouth 

Yesterday  I  saw  an  example  of  the  work  of  some  of 
these  robber  plants.  A  small  friend  of  mine  was 
rummaging  about  the  pantry  shelf,  possibly  looking 
for  the  cookies.  She  found  a  piece  of  bread  that  had 
fallen  behind  a  box  and  lain  for  several  days  in  a  warm, 
moist  place.  The  bread  was  all  covered  over  with  a 
soft,  furry  looking  growth  that  her  mother  told  her 
was  mold. 

The  mold  consists  of  a  tiny  forest  of  very  small  and 
nearly  colorless  plants.  The  spores  (or  seeds)  of  these 


58  HYGIENE  AND  HEALTH 

little  plants  are  everywhere  floating  in  the  air,  and  some 
of  them  had  fallen  on  the  piece  of  bread.  They  at 
once  started  to  grow,  like  plants  in  your  garden,  and 
the  bread  was  soon  covered  with  a  mass  of  mold.  The 
mold  plants  were  using  the  bread  for  their  food,  that 
was  all. 

Difference  between  bacteria  and  green  plants. 
— There  are  many  different  kinds  of  bacteria,  prob- 
ably as  many  as  there  are  of  the  green  plants  we  see 
about  us.  But  bacteria  are  all  alike  in  one  thing — 
they  lack  the  substance  called  chlorophyl  (kls'  ro  fil) 
which  makes  the  world  of  visible  plants  green. 

The  color  itself  does  not  seem  to  be  so  very  impor- 
tant, but  the  chlorophyl  which  causes  the  green  color 
makes  all  the  difference  in  the  world.  For  it  is  the  chlo- 
rophyl that  enables  the  green  plant  to  take  its  food 
from  the  air,  the  sunshine,  the  soil  and  water. 

The  importance  of  this  is  readily  understood  when 
we  stop  to  think  that  all  the  food  for  both  animals  and 
plants  must  come  from  these  sources.  No  animal  can 
get  its  food  directly  from  air,  sunshine,  soil  and  water. 
Only  plants  can  do  this.  Nor  can  any  plant  get  its  food 
in  this  way  which  does  not  have  chlorophyl. 

What  bacteria  live  upon. — But  bacteria  that  our 
story  deals  with  all  lack  chlorophyl.  Only  a  few  can 
live  on  air,  sunshine  and  soil.  The  others  must,  just 
like  ourselves,  have  organic  food ;  that  is,  food  coming 
from  plants  or  the  flesh  of  animals. 


GOOD  AND  BAD  MICROBES  59 

This  means  that  the  bacteria  must  use  the  same  foods 
that  we  use.  Meat,  vegetables,  eggs,  milk,  fruit— 
these  are  foods  we  must  have.  But  they  are  also  the 
foods  most  favored  by  the  bacteria.  And  there  is  there- 
fore a  constant  battle  to  see  which  will  get  the  food, 
we  or  our  bacteria  enemies. 

For  example,  you  pick  a  dozen  choice  apples  and  lay 
them  away  to  ripen  for  Thanksgiving.  When  you 
come  to  get  them  you  find  that  half  of  them  have 


Microbes  found  in  the  soil  Microbes  which  cause  meat  to  decay 

decayed  and  are  not  fit  to  be  eaten.  What  has  hap- 
pened? The  bacteria  got  ahead  of  you!  One  of  the 
apples  may  have  had  a  tiny  break  in  the  skin  when 
you  laid  them  away.  The  bacteria  immediately 
attacked  this  point  and  began  their  growth.  It  was 
their  work  that  caused  the  decay  of  your  apples. 

Bacteria  attacking  our  foods. — If  we  set  away  a 
roast  of  meat  where  the  air  is  warm  and  moist  enough 
for  bacteria  to  grow,  the  meat  soon  "spoils."  This 
only  means  that  the  bacteria  have  set  at  work  upon  the 
meat  and  used  it  for  their  food. 


60  HYGIENE  AND  HEALTH 

Bacteria  sometimes  get  into  the  fruit  we  can  and 
cause  it  to  "work"  so  that  it  spoils.  They  swarm 
into  our  sweet  cider  and  make  it  "hard."  They  attack 
our  bottle  of  sweet  milk  and  it  has  soon  soured.  In 
fact  there  is  almost  no  article  of  our  food  that  they 
do  not  seek  to  appropriate. 

Not  satisfied  with  trying  to  get  our  food  from  us,  the 
microbes  even  attack  our  bodies.  Some  of  them  live 
upon  our  skin,  and  cause  such  diseases  as  ring-worm. 
Others  inhabit  the  stomach  and  intestines.  Still  others 


Microbes  which  cause  Microbes  which  Microbes  which  cause 

diphtheria  cause  grippe  bubonic  plague 

live  in  the  mouth,  feeding  upon  the  particles  of  food 
left  on  the  teeth  and  causing  them  to  decay. 

Bacteria  and  disease. — Our  worst  microbe  enemies 
are  certain  kinds  that  cause  diseases  when  once  they 
secure  a  hold  within  the  body.  We  often  speak  of  these 
microbes  as  "disease  germs."  Let  a  certain  kind  of 
germ  set  up  its  growth  in  our  lungs,  and  we  soon 
have  tuberculosis.  Another  kind  brings  us  diphtheria, 
another  scarlet  fever,  another  measles,  another  is 
responsible  for  colds,  sore  throats,  and  pneumonia. 
And  so  on  throughout  most  other  diseases  that  cause 
us  so  much  trouble. 


GOOD  AND  BAD  MICROBES  6l 

We  are  in  a  constant  battle  with  the  disease  germs 
that  threaten  us.  But  if  we  follow  a  few  simple  direc- 
tions for  keeping  well  and  strong  we  have  little  cause 
for  fear,  for  with  right  habits  of  living  we  can  win 
in  the  battle  most  of  the  time. 

Bacteria  that  are  our  friends. — Nor  must  we  make 
the  mistake  of  thinking  that  all  bacteria  are  our  ene- 
mies. They  are  like  the  fairies,  the  most  are  good 
and  a  few  are  bad.  Or  they  are  like  the  green  plants 
that  grow  round  about  us,  some  are  friends  and  some 
are  enemies. 

Some  of  the  most  friendly  microbes  live  in  the  soil. 
Without  them  we  could  not  raise  our  crops.  Others 
work  in  the  cream  and  make  it  ready  for  churning, 
and  still  others  give  the  delicate  flavor  to  butter. 

We  could  not  make  cheese  without  microbes.  The 
vinegar  we  use  is  a  microbe  product.  Microbes  im- 
mediately set  at  work  upon  any  bit  of  refuse  or  dead 
matter.  They  cause  it  to  decay,  and  soon  make  it 
harmless.  With  this  decayed  matter  they  feed  the 
plants.  In  these  and  a  score  of  other  ways  certain 
kinds  of  bacteria  are  good  fairies. 

Perhaps  we  may  say  of  microbes,  like  the  ' 'little 
girl  with  a  curl" — when  they  are  good  they  are  very 
good,  and  when  they  are  bad  they  are  horrid! 

Interesting  things  to  do. — i.  You  can  easily  try 
an  interesting  experiment  in  growing  a  crop  of 
mold.  Put  a  piece  of  bread  or  of  apple  on  a 


62  HYGIENE  AND  HEALTH 

plate  and  cover  it  over  with  a  glass.  The  air 
must  be  somewhat  moist.  Now  set  away  for  sev- 
eral days  in  a  rather  dark  place,  since  molds  do 
not  grow  so  well  in  the  light.  Study  the  mold, 
when  it  has  appeared,  with  a  magnifying-glass. 

2.  Squeeze  the  juice  out  of  an  apple  and  set  it  away 
in  a  warm  place  for  several  days.    Has  it  become 
sour?   What  causes  it  to  sour?    If  you  will  put  a 
few  drops  of  acid  in  the  apple  juice  it  will  not 
sour,  because  the  acid  kills  the  bacteria.     This 
is  the  way  sweet  cider  is  kept  from  becoming 
"hard." 

3.  The  bacteria  that  cause  diphtheria  and  other 
diseases  are  sometimes  found  in  the  mouths  of 
healthy  persons.     Decaying  teeth  are  swarming 
with  bacteria.     Do  you  think,  then,  that  it  is  a 
good   habit   to   put   pencils   or   pens    into    our 
mouths  to  act  as  carriers  of  these  germs?   Watch 
yourself  to  see  whether  you  have  this  habit. 

Health  Problems 

1.  After  reading  this  lesson  what  reasons  can  you  give  why  a 
common  drinking  cup  should  not  be  used  at  school  or  other 
public  places? 

2.  A  closed  tank  for  drinking  water  at  a  school  was  not  cleaned 
out  for  several  weeks.     Then  it  was  found  to  have  a  bad 
smell.    How  do  you  suppose  the  bad  smell  was  caused? 


CHAPTER  IX 

PROTECTING   OUR  FOOD  FROM   MICROBES 

Last  week  a  friend  invited  me  to  visit  with  him  a 
great  packing  plant  from  which  tons  of  beef,  pork 
and  mutton  are  daily  shipped  to  the  city  markets. 

After  watching  the  various  processes  by  which  the 
meat  is  prepared,  we  were  taken  into  a  room  where 
we  were  given  heavy  overcoats  to  put  on.  Then  we 
were  led  into  the  large  refrigerating  rooms  where  the 
meat  is  kept  in  cold  storage. 

Here  we  saw  great  quantities  of  meat  hanging  on 
large  racks  many  feet  in  length.  Although  the  weather 
was  warm  outside,  the  room  was  so  cold  that  we  could 
see  our  breath,  and  frost  hung  thick  on  the  walls. 

Our  guide  told  us  that  the  carcasses  of  beef,  pork 
and  mutton  were  often  kept  for  months  in  these  cold 
storage  rooms  before  being  shipped  to  the  markets 
for  our  tables. 

Why  we  keep  food  in  the  refrigerator. — One 

might  think  that  meat  kept  so  long  would  spoil,  but  it 
does  not.  In  fact  it  would  remain  sweet  and  fresh  for 
years  if  the  temperature  of  the  storage  room  was  kept 
slightly  below  the  freezing  point.  For  in  this  low 

63 


64 


HYGIENE  AND  HEALTH 


temperature    bacteria    can    not    grow,    and    without 

bacteria  the  meat  will  not  spoil. 

We  use  the  same  principle  in  our  home  refrigerators 

as  in  the  cold  storage  rooms  of  the  packing  plant. 

True,  we  can  not  cool  our  refrigerators  to  the  freezing 
point  with  ice.  But  we  can  make 
them  so  cool  that  the  growth  of 
the  bacteria  is  very  slow.  Foods 
will  therefore  keep  in  them  for 
several  days  without  spoiling. 

Why   dried    foods    will    not 
spoil.  —  Not    only    must    bacteria 
The  black  specks  show     have    warmth    for    their    growth, 

the  germs  revealed  by  the  but  they  must  also  have  mois- 
microscope  on  a  drinking  ture  jn  certain  desert  Qr  ^ 
glass  which  had  been  used 

by  many  people  in  a  pub-  regions  where  the  air  is  very  dry, 
lie  place.  A  small  section  meat  anci  other  foods  can  be  kept 

of   the    glass,    when    put  ,,  .  «  ... 

under    a    more    powerful      m  the  °Pen  air  Without  spoiling. 

magnifier,    showed    the         On   the   dry   plains  of  Arizona 

swarm  of  germs  appear-       fresh  meat  js  h  jn 

ing  in  the  next  picture  .  .^ 

shine,  where  it  quickly 
by  drying.  The  atmosphere  has  so  little  moisture 
that  bacteria  do  not  grow  readily  enough  to  cause 
the  meat  to  decay. 

One  of  the  most  common  methods  of  defeating 
bacteria  is  by  drying  our  foods  so  that  the  bacteria 
can  not  grow  upon  them.  Great  quantities  of  fruits 
and  vegetables  are  preserved  in  this  way  every  year. 


cures 


PROTECTING  OUR  FOOD  FROM  MICROBES   65 


Once  such  foods  are  well  dried,  they  may  be  safely 
packed  away  without  fear  of  the  bacteria. 

Defeating  bacteria  by  canning  foods. — When  we 
can  our  fruit  or  vegetables,  we  first  boil  them.  This 
not  only  cooks  the  food,  but  also  kills  all  the  bacteria. 
While  the  product  we  are  canning 
is  still  very  hot,  we  seal  the  jar  or 
can  quickly  so  that  fresh  bacteria 
can  not  enter.  If  we  do  our  work 
successfully,  the  fruit  or  vegetables 
will  then  keep  as  long  as  we  wish. 

If  canned  fruit  or  vegetables 
spoil  in  the  cans,  we  may  know 
that  some  bacteria  were  left  alive 
when  the  food  was  canned,  or  else 
that  they  have  got  in  after  the 
canning  was  completed,  and  have 
set  up  their  growth. 

You  may  have  noticed  that 
when  a  can  of  fruit  begins  to  fer- 
ment soon  after  it  is  canned,  your 

mother  sometimes  empties  it  out  and  cooks  it  over 
again.  She  then  cans  it  a  second  time.  The  cook- 
ing process  kills  the  bacteria  which  had  begun  their 
work.  If  no  fresh  ones  are  allowed  to  enter,  the 
fruit  will  keep. 

Cleanliness  an  enemy  of  bacteria. — Fresh  milk 
that  is  put  into  bottles  or  cans  which  have  had  sour 


A  highly  magnified  sec- 
tion from  the  drinking 
glass  shown  on  page  64. 
These  are  germs  left  from 
the  lips  of  many  persons 
who  drank  from  the  glass. 
Who  wants  to  take  into 
his  mouth  the  germs  com- 
ing from  the  mouths  of 
others? 


66  HYGIENE  AND  HEALTH 

milk  in  them  will  sour  very  quickly  if  the  bottles  or 
cans  are  not  thoroughly  washed  and  scalded.  This  is 
because  the  particles  of  the  sour  milk  contain  millions 
of  bacteria,  which  immediately  begin  to  work  in  the 
new  milk.  This  starts  it  to  souring. 

Any  dish  into  which  food  is  put  must  therefore  be 
perfectly  clean  if  we  wish  the  food  to  keep.  Not  only 
must  the  ordinary  dust  and  dirt  be  removed,  but  also 
the  bacteria  which  might  start  the  food  to  decay. 

Two  ways  to  kill  bacteria. — A  number  of  different 
kinds  of  disease  germs  are  often  carried  in  water  or  in 
milk.  A  recent  epidemic  of  typhoid  fever  was  traced 
to  the  milk  coming  from  a  certain  dairy.  Typhoid 
germs  had  got  into  the  water  with  which  the  milk  cans 
and  pails  were  washed,  and  were  thus  carried  to  the 
customers  who  bought  the  milk.  This  caused  the 
death  of  a  number  of  people. 

Another  typhoid  epidemic  was  traced  to  the  germs 
from  a  sewer  which  overflowed  into  the  water  supply 
of  a  city. 

Tuberculosis  is  often  carried  to  children  in  the  milk 
which  comes  from  tubercular  cows. 

If  there  is  any  suspicion  that  germs  have  got  into 
the  water  supply,  the  water  should  be  boiled  before  it 
is  drunk.  Milk  that  contains  disease  germs  should  be 
boiled  or  pasteurized. 

To  pasteurize  milk  it  is  kept  at  a  temperature  of 
149  degrees  Fahrenheit  for  twenty  minutes,  or  176 


PROTECTING  OUR  FOOD  FROM  MICROBES   67 

degrees  for  five  minutes.    This  heating  is  sufficient  to 
kill  the  germs  of  tuberculosis. 

Interesting  problems  to  solve. — i.  Having  in 
mind  that  the  tiny  plants  that  we  call  bacteria 
require  warmth  and  moisture  for  their  growth 
the  same  as  green  plants,  see  whether  you  can 
answer  these  questions: 

(a)  Why  do  we   store    our  winter    supply   of 
apples  and  potatoes  in  a  cool,  dry  place? 

(b)  Why  do  peaches,  pears,  apples  and  other 
fruit    sometimes    rot    on    the    trees    in    a   very 
wet,  hot  season? 

(c)  Why  will  dried  beef  or  potato  chips  keep 
without  spoiling? 

2.  A  young  man  I  knew  was  out  hunting  with  a 
companion.    They  became  very  thirsty,  and  my 
friend  proposed  that  they  drink  from   a  small 
creek     they    were     crossing.      His    companion 
objected  that   it   was   not  very  clean,  but   my 
friend   drank.     In    about   two   weeks   he   came 
down   with   typhoid,  from  which  he   died.      It 
was    later    found    that   drainage    reached    this 
stream  from  a  place  where  there  was  typhoid. 
What   would    this   case   suggest   to   you   about 
drinking  from  streams  or  ponds? 

3.  Why  will  milk  put  into  a  can  that  has  not  been 
thoroughly  cleaned,  sour  more  quickly  than  if 
put  in  a  can  that  has  been  scalded? 


CHAPTER  X 

WHY   WE    SHOULD   GET   RID   OF   FLIES 

A  friend  remarked  to  me  the  other  day  that  "swat 
the  fly1'  has  become  the  great  American  motto.  Cer- 
tain it  is  at  least  that  we  have  declared  war  on  the 
fly. 

Let  us  give  the  fly  no  quarter.  For  flies  are  always 
our  enemies.  They  are  themselves  dirty,  and  they  are 
carriers  of  filth.  They  breed  in  vile  refuse.  They  eat 
everything  that  is  repulsive  and  unclean,  and  they 
always  have  filthy  feet. 

The  fly  is  always  dirty. — The  fly  that  comes  sip- 
ping out  of  the  edge  of  your  glass  of  milk,  or  the  one 
that  comes  crawling  over  the  sugar  on  your  berry  dish 
has  probably  come  from  the  dirtiest  things  imaginable 
directly  to  your  dinner  table.  No  wonder  that  we 
want  to  "swat  the  fly." 

Flies  are  not  only  dirty,  but  they  also  carry  disease 
germs.  The  flies  that  you  see  swarming  over  the  fruit 
which  the  peddler  or  grocer  has  for  sale  may  just  have 
come  from  drinking  out  of  the  sewer.  And  the  sewer 
may  contain  the  germs  of  typhoid  fever. 

68 


WHY  WE  SHOULD  GET  RID  OF  FLIES 


69 


The  fly  carries  disease. — Such  germs  cling  to  the 
fly's  feet  and  mouth;  he  can  carry  hundreds  of  them. 
These  he  distributes  over  the  fruit  when  he  crawls 
upon  it.  Then  if  you  buy  the  fruit  and  eat  it  without 
cleaning  it,  you  are  in  danger  of  taking  these  typhoid 


The  fly  is  not  only  disgusting,  but  dangerous.     He  carries  both  filth  and 
disease  about  with  him 

or  other  germs  into  your  mouth  and  contracting  the 
disease. 

There  is  no  doubt  that  hundreds  and  perhaps  thou- 
sands of  people  are  killed  every  year  by  diseases  which 
are  carried  by  the  flies. 

The  other  day  I  was  walking  along  the  street  and 
came  upon  a  disgusting  mass  of  sputum  which  some- 


70  HYGIENE  AND  HEALTH 

body  had  spit  from  his  mouth  after  coughing.  There 
were  a  dozen  flies  around  the  edge  of  it  eating  the 
horrid  stuff.  When  they  were  disturbed  by  some  one 
coming  past,  they  flew  away  and  half  of  them  imme- 
diately alighted  upon  fruit  in  a  peddler's  cart  at  the 
edge  of  the  sidewalk.  Two  of  them  crawled  inside  the 
open  mouth  of  a  sack  of  candy  and  finished  their  meal 
upon  it. 

Who  knows  how  many  tuberculosis  germs  those 
flies  brought  from  their  disgusting  meal  and  tracked 
over  the  apples  and  candy  which  children  would 
afterwards  eat!  Not  only  should  we  get  rid  of  flies 
as  fast  as  we  can,  but  we  should  never  eat  food  that 
has  been  exposed  where  flies  can  get  at  it. 

Shutting  the  flies  out. — Besides  "swatting"  flies 
wherever  we  find  them  in  our  houses,  there  are  two 
other  ways  of  getting  rid  of  them.  One  way  is  to  have 
screens  upon  our  doors  and  windows  and  not  let  the 
flies  get  in.  Our  houses  should  be  carefully  screened 
whenever  the  flies  are  bad. 

But  a  still  better  way  than  either  "swatting"  them 
or  shutting  them  out  is  to  quit  raising  them.  With  a 
little  care  on  the  part  of  everybody  it  would  be  very 
easy  to  get  rid  of  all  the  flies,  so  that  there  would  be 
hardly  one  left  to  trouble  us. 

Preventing  flies  from  hatching. — For  flies  always 
hatch  in  filth  or  some  decaying  matter.  The  mother 
fly  lays  her  eggs  preferably  in  a  pile  of  manure.  If 


WHY  WE  SHOULD  GET  RID  OF  FLIES  71 

manure  is  not  at  hand,  a  rotting  straw  stack  or  some 
other  filth  will  do. 


Flies  hatch  in  manure  or  rubbish,  live  upon  all  that  is  filthy,  and  then 
come  to  our  tables  and  get  into  our  food 

In  about  ten  days  the  eggs  hatch  into  worm-like 
maggots.  After  a  little  time  the  maggots  grow  wings 
and  legs  and  become  full-grown  flies. 

6 


72  HYGIENE  AND  HEALTH 

Now  since  flies  are  so  short-lived,  few  of  them  living 
over  the  first  winter,  it  is  clear  that  if  we  can  stop 
hatching  fly  eggs,  we  shall  soon  be  without  flies.  And 
since  it  takes  the  eggs  from  a  week  to  ten  days  to 
hatch  out  in  a  manure  pile,  it  is  evident  that  if  the 
manure  from  our  stables,  or  other  rubbish  in  which 
flies  hatch,  is  cleared  away  promptly,  then  the  flies' 
eggs  would  not  have  a  chance  to  hatch. 

In  cities  where  laws  have  been  passed  requiring  that 
all  rubbish  shall  be  kept  cleaned  up  and  hauled  away 
or  burned,  it  has  been  found  that  after  a  year  or  two 
there  are  few  flies  left.  What  flies  still  remain  are 
hatched  in  rubbish  heaps  which  have  in  some  way 
escaped  notice  of  the  health  officers. 

How  boys  and  girls  can  help. — But  as  long  as 
there  are  flies  it  is  the  duty  of  every  boy  and  girl  to 
help  shut  them  out  of  our  homes,  and  to  help  trap  and 
kill  them  when  they  get  inside.  And  of  course  we 
shall  always  want  to  see  that  no  food  is  left  uncovered 
where  flies  can  get  it.  For  nobody  wants  to  eat  after 
a  fly! 

Fruit,  vegetables,  bread  or  other  food  should  not  be 
left  uncovered  in  stores  and  markets  so  that  flies  can 
get  at  it.  Many  states  and  cities  now  have  laws 
requiring  that  foods  offered  for  sale  in  the  markets 
shall  be  kept  in  cases  away  from  the  flies.  What  is 
the  law  in  your  state  or  town?  Are  foods  in  the  markets 
protected  from  flies? 


WHY  WE  SHOULD  GET  RID  OF  FLIES  73 

Facts  to  remember  about  flies. — i.  Flies  always 
leave  filth  of  one  kind  or  another  on  our  food 
when  they  crawl  over  it.  For  flies  hatch  in 
filth,  live  in  filth,  eat  filth. 

2.  Flies  are  one  of  the  most  dangerous  carriers  of 
disease  germs.     We  should  never  eat  food  that 
has  come   from  markets  where  there  are  flies, 
unless  we  first  clean  the  food. 

3.  Most  flies  are  hatched  in  manure  piles.     Clean 
up  the  manure  every  two  weeks  or  oftener,  and 
there  will  be  few  flies.    It  is  possible  that  this 
can  not  always  be  done  around  barns  in   the 
country,  but  it  can  in  towns  and  cities. 

Health  Problems 

1.  Why  are  flies  so  much  more  plentiful  late  in  the  season  than 
early  in  the  season? 

2.  A  certain  town  which  has  many  dirty  alleys  and  barns  with 
manure  heaps  is  offering  a  prize  for  trapping  flies.    Another 
town  near  by  has  a  law  against  dirty  alleys  and  manure 
heaps.    Which  town  is  more  likely  to  rid  itself  of  flies? 

3.  Notice  the  market  places  and  shops  of  your  town  to  see 
how  many  places  protect  the  food  for  sale  from  flies.    Ought 
this  question  to  make  any  difference  where  you  do  your 
buying? 

4.  If  you  live  in  the  country,  what  can  you  do  to  prevent  the 
hatching  of  flies?    Talk  with  your  father  and  mother  about 
this. 


CHAPTER  XI 

PROTECTION   AGAINST   MOSQUITOES 

Mosquitoes  have  always  been  looked  upon  as 
enemies  because  their  sting  is  so  unpleasant.  The 
poison  in  their  sting  also  causes  lumps  to  swell  on  the 
skin  of  many  people. 

A  very  much  worse  crime  than  this  has  been  fastened 
upon  mosquitoes,  however.  The  mosquito  has  been 
found  to  be  the  carrier  of  yellow  fever,  malaria,  and 
perhaps  other  diseases.  The  way  this  crime  was 
proved  on  the  mosquito  is  an  interesting  story. 

Yellow  fever  carried  by  mosquitoes. — When  in 
the  year  1900  the  United  States  was  at  war  with  Spain, 
our  army  was  stationed  in  Cuba  where  yellow  fever  was 
raging.  The  army  doctors  already  believed  the  mos- 
quito to  be  the  carrier  of  yellow  fever.  They  deter- 
mined to  find  out  for  sure  whether  it  was  carried  by 
mosquitoes  from  yellow  fever  patients  to  well  persons, 
or  whether  the  disease  was  caught  by  germs  carried  in 
the  air  or  upon  clothing. 

So  the  army  doctors  built  a  small  house,  and  screened 
all  its  windows  and  doors  to  keep  mosquitoes  out. 
They  brought  straight  from  the  beds  of  patients 

74 


PROTECTION  AGAINST  MOSQUITOES 


75 


The  mosquito  common  to  the  North. 

Note  the  position  of  the  body  and  legs 

when  at  rest 


smitten  with  yellow 
fever  soiled  sheets, 
pillow  cases  and 
blankets  to  use  as 
bedding.  A  number 
of  brave  soldiers  vol- 
unteered to  live  in 
this  house  and  use 
the  bedding  from 
the  yellow  fever  pa- 
tients. They  stayed 

here  for  about  three  weeks,  but  not  one  of  them  took 

the  disease. 

The  doctors  then  obtained  another  house  in  which 
everything  was  as  clean  as  could  be,  with  not  an 
article  in  it  that  had  been  near  yellow  fever.  In 
this  house  were  placed 
another  brave  group  of 
soldiers,  ready  to  risk 
their  lives  to  find  out  the 
truth  about  yellow  fever 
and  the  mosquitoes. 

Mosquitoes  were  al- 
lowed to  suck  the  blood 
of  yellow  fever  patients 
and  then  were  turned 


loose    in     the     room 
where  the  soldiers  were. 


The    malaria    mosquito.      Note  the 
position    of    the    body    and    legs 


76  HYGIENE  AND  HEALTH 

More  than  half  of  those  bitten  by  the  yellow  fever 
mosquitoes  took  the  disease,  and  some  of  them  died. 
Do  you  not  think  that  these  soldiers  were  true  heroes! 

Another  count  against  mosquitoes. — Another 
disease  known  as  malaria,  or  fever  and  ague,  is  car- 
ried by  mosquitoes.  For  many  years  it  has  been 
known  that  malaria  occurs  more  or  less  in  all  warm 
climates,  especially  in  hot  weather  after  rains  and  near 
marshes  where  water  stands  stagnant.  It  was  formerly 
thought  that  the  disease  was  taken  by  breathing  air 
poisoned  in  some  way  by  the  hot,  stagnant  marshes. 
But  finally  it  was  discovered  that  only  the  mosquitoes 
are  to  blame  for  carrying  malaria. 

When  the  building  of  the  Panama  Canal  was  under- 
taken by  the  United  States,  it  was  at  first  difficult  to 
get  workmen.  They  were  afraid  of  malaria  and  yellow 
fever.  And  they  had  good  right  to  be,  for  thousands 
of  people  died  in  this  region  every  year  from  these 
diseases. 

Getting  rid  of  mosquitoes. — But  Surgeon  General 
Gorgas  undertook  to  drive  the  mosquitoes  out  so  that 
it  might  be  safe  for  our  workmen.  He  drained  the 
marshes.  He  poured  oil  upon  ponds  and  in  ditches 
which  could  not  be  drained.  In  every  way  possible 
he  destroyed  the  breeding  places  of  mosquitoes.  He 
soon  got  ahead  of  the  mosquitoes,  and  Panama  region 
was  made  as  healthful  as  any  part  of  our  own  country. 
Yellow  fever  and  malaria  almost  disappeared. 


PROTECTION  AGAINST  MOSQUITOES 


77 


There  is  a  certain  kind  of  a  mosquito  that  carries 
yellow  fever,  and  another  kind  that  carries  malaria. 
The  former  of  these  mosquitoes  can  not  live  except  in 

very  warm  climates, 
but  we  find  the  ma- 
laria mosquito  in  the 
northern  states  as 
well  as  in  the  South. 
Mosquitoes  of  any 
kind  are  undesirable, 
however,  and  should 
not  be  allowed  where 
it  is  possible  to  de- 
stroy them. 

Breeding     places 
of    mosquitoes.— 

Mosquitoes  breed  in 
stagnant  water,  in 
ponds,  ditches,  pud- 
dles, rain  barrels,  or 
even  open  vessels  or 
dishes  of  water  out- 
side. 

The  wrigglers  that  you  have  seen  in  the  rain  barrel 
after  it  has  stood  for  ten  days  or  two  weeks,  are  the 
larvae  of  mosquitoes.  They  will  soon  hatch  out  and 
be  flying  about  stinging  you  as  a  reward  for  having 
allowed  them  to  hatch. 


At  the  top  is  a  mass  of  mosquito  eggs 
floating  on  the  water.  Below  are  mos- 
quito larvae  (wigglers)  which  have 
hatched  from  the  eggs.  They  will  soon 
grow  into  full-sized  mosquitoes,  and  be 
ready  to  sting 


78  HYGIENE  AND  HEALTH 

Helping  destroy  mosquitoes. — Boys  and  girls  can 
help  prevent  mosquitoes  around  their  homes  by 
seeing  that  there  is  no  stagnant  water  left  unscreened 
for  them  to  get  into.  Puddles  can  be  filled  with  dirt. 
Small  ditches  can  be  opened  to  allow  the  water  to 
drain  off.  Small  ponds  where  mosquitoes  breed  may 
have  a  little  kerosene  poured  on  them.  This  will 
kill  the  larvae  and  no  mosquitoes  will  hatch. 

Facts  to  remember  about  mosquitoes. — i.  Yel- 
low fever  and  malaria  are  carried  by  mosquitoes. 
Where  there  are  no  mosquitoes  there  is  no 
yellow  fever  nor  malaria. 

2.  Mosquitoes  are  an  annoyance  even  when  they 
do    not    carry  disease.      Their   stings    contain 
enough    poison   to  cause  swelling  and  soreness 
on  the  flesh  of  most  persons. 

3.  Mosquitoes   hatch   in   swamps,    marshes,    pools 
and  puddles,  or  other  stagnant  water.     Even  a 
rain  barrel  or  a  can  of  water  may  serve  as  a 
hatching  place  for  hundreds  of  them.     To  get 
rid  of  mosquitoes,  prevent  their  hatching. 

Health  Problems 

1.  It  has  been  noticed  that  as  a  new  region  of  country  is  settled 
and  the  land  drained  and  put  under  cultivation,  there  are 
fewer  mosquitoes.    Why? 

2.  There  are  more  mosquitoes  during  rainy  seasons  than  dry 
seasons.     Why? 

3.  Are  you  keeping  up  with  the  Health  Chores? 

4.  Have  you  noticed  mosquitoes  at  your  home?     If  so,  try  to 
find  out  where  they  come  from. 


CHAPTER  XII 

THE  AIR  AND   BREATHING 

Why  does  a  person  drown  when  he  is  under  water? 
Surely  the  water  itself  does  not  hurt  the  lungs.  No, 
what  the  water  does  is  to  shut  the  air  out  of  the  lungs. 
It  is  the  want  of  air  that  really  causes  the  death  of  the 
drowning  person. 

We  eat  only  three  times  a  day.  We  drink  water 
every  two  or  three  hours.  But  we  must  breathe  air 
into  our  lungs  every  moment  day  and  night  as  long 
as  we  live. 

Experiments  in  breathing. — Sit  down  with  a 
watch  before  you.  Breathe  naturally,  and  count  the 
number  of  times  you  breathe  in  one  minute.  About 
eighteen  or  twenty  times?  If  you  try  holding  your 
breath,  you  find  after  a  few  seconds  that  you  become 
very  uncomfortable.  You  are  obliged  to  give  it  up 
and  go  to  breathing  again.  No  one  can  live  for  more 
than  a  few  minutes  without  air. 

Since  air  is  so  necessary  for  our  lives,  it  is  well  that 
it  is  so  plentiful.  We  live  at  the  bottom  of  a  great 
ocean  of  air,  as  fish  live  in  the  ocean  of  water. 

This  air  ocean  is  so  deep  that  it  extends  upward 

79 


80  HYGIENE  AND  HEALTH 

scores  of  miles  above  the  earth.  We  find  it  every- 
where. It  sweeps  about  us  in  great  currents  that  we 
call  winds  and  storms.  It  creeps  through  the  doors 
and  windows  into  our  houses.  It  passes  through  our 
clothing  and  bathes  the  body.  It  fills  every,  corner, 
nook,  and  crevice  all  about  us.  It  even  finds  its  way 
into  the  soil  and  helps  in  the  growth  of  plants. 

Air  enough  for  all. — One  would  think  that  because 
air  is  so  plentiful  and  so  free,  every  one  might  have  all 
the  air  he  needs.  Yet  there  are  many  people  who  do 
not  get  enough  good  air,  and  who  are  suffering  for 
want  of  it  as  they  would  starve  for  want  of  food. 

Those  who  work  in  poorly  ventilated  shops  or  down 
in  mines  show  by  their  pale  faces  that  they  do  not 
get  good  air.  The  crowded  street-car  with  its 
windows  all  closed,  the  stuffy  school  room,  or  the 
bedroom  in  which  the  windows  are  not  opened  at 
night  is  robbing  us  of  the  air  we  need  for  our  health 
and  growth. 

What  the  air  does  for  the  body. — The  air  that 
we  take  into  the  lungs  does  two  important  things  for 
us:  it  supplies  the  body  with  oxygen,  and  it  carries 
away  carbon  dioxide. 

The  fire  that  burns  in  your  furnace  is  produced  by 
the  oxygen  of  the  air  uniting  with  the  carbon  of  the 
coal.  When  you  want  your  fire  to  burn  faster  you 
let  in  more  oxygen  by  opening  the  draft;  when  you 
want  it  to  burn  more  slowly  you  shut  out  the  oxy- 


THE  AIR  AND  BREATHING  8 1 

gen.     If  you  shut  out  all  the  oxygen  the  fire  will  go 
out. 

Oxygen  is  as  necessary  to  our  bodies  as  it  is  to  the 
fire  in  the  furnace.  No  living  thing  can  exist  without 
it.  The  more  oxygen  an  animal  breathes  the  more 
actively  alive  it  is.  If  you  will  catch  a  mouse  and  put 
it  into  a  jar  to  which  has  been  added  an  extra  amount 
of  oxygen,  you  will  be  surprised  at  the  liveliness  of 
your  mouse.  It  will  jump  and  dance  and  spring  about 
and  be  very  merry  indeed.  The  extra  oxygen  makes 
it  very  much  alive. 

How  the  oxygen  works. — The  oxygen  that  is 
breathed  into  the  lungs  is  picked  up  by  little  red 
bodies  in  the  blood,  called  corpuscles,  and  carried  to 
every  part  of  the  body.  Wherever  worn-out  or  dead 
tissue  is  found,  the  oxygen  unites  with  the  carbon  of 
the  dead  tissue  precisely  as  it  does  with  the  coal  in  the 
furnace,  and  burns  it  up.  It  is  this  burning  up  of  the 
body's  worn-out  tissues  that  makes  the  tiny  fires  men- 
tioned in  a  preceding  chapter.  And  it  is  these  fires 
that  keep  up  the  heat  of  the  body. 

The  fire  burning  in  the  furnace  produces  a  gas, 
which  escapes  up  the  chimney.  This  gas  is  carbon 
dioxide.  The  burning  up  of  the  waste  tissues  in  the 
body  by  the  action  of  oxygen  produces  carbon  dioxide 
exactly  like  that  from  the  furnace. 

Getting  rid  of  carbon  dioxide. — This  carbon  diox- 
ide is  carried  by  the  blood  to  the  lungs,  where  it  is 


82  HYGIENE  AND  HEALTH 

breathed  out  with  the  air  that  is  expelled.  If  it  is  not 
properly  removed  from  the  body  it  acts  as  a  poison 
just  as  if  one  should  breathe  coal  gas  or  illuminating 
gas.  If  you  treat  the  mouse  in  your  jar  to  air  containing 
too  much  carbon  dioxide  it  will  soon  curl  up  in  the 
bottom  of  the  jar  and  die. 

The  amount  of  oxygen  supplied  the  body  and  the 
amount  of  carbon  dioxide  removed  depends  on  two 
things: 

(1)  Whether  we  have  an  abundance  of  pure  fresh 
air  to  breathe. 

(2)  The  size  of  our  lungs  and  how  we  use  them  in 
breathing. 

The  size  of  our  lungs. — If  your  lungs  are  well 
developed  they  should  be  able  to  hold  about  five  pints 
of  air  when  they  are  entirely  full.  If  you  have  stooped 
shoulders  and  a  hollow  chest,  if  you  do  not  breathe 
deeply,  or  if  you  do  not  exercise  freely  in  the  open  air 
it  is  possible  that  your  lungs  do  not  hold  more  than 
four  pints,  or  even  three  pints. 

One  whose  lungs  are  not  doing  their  work  well  can 
never  be  up  to  his  full  strength  and  vigor.  He  lacks 
endurance.  He  takes  cold  easily,  and  is  subject  to 
diseases  in  general.  He  is  more  liable  to  tuberculosis, 
for  it  is  in  the  little  used  portions  of  the  lungs  that 
the  disease  germs  begin  their  work. 

It  is  worth  while  to  know  how  to  breathe  right. 
Press  your  hands  against  your  body  just  below  the 


THE  AIR  AND  BREATHING  83 

ribs.  When  you  breathe  clear  to  the  bottom  of  your 
lungs  you  can  feel  the  body  expand  at  this  point.  If 
you  fill  only  the  upper  part  of  your  lungs,  you  will 
feel  little  or  no  expansion.  Be  sure  to  force  the  air 
to  the  very  bottom  of  your  lungs. 

Giving  our  lungs  a  fair  chance. — It  is  well  to 
take  several  minutes  now  and  then  for  deep  breathing. 
While  standing  in  the  fresh  air,  see  how  full  you  can 
fill  your  lungs,  and  how  deep  you  can  make  the  air 
go  down.  But  better  still  is  to  form  the  habit  of 
breathing  deep  and  full  all  the  time.  This  will  require 
that  we  be  careful  not  to  sit  or  stand  in  such  postures 
that  the  lungs  will  be  crowded  or  cramped. 

Best  of  all,  however,  is  plenty  of  good  exercise  in 
the  open  air.  Run  a  block  at  your  best  clip,  or  take 
a  running  start  and  see  how  far  you  can  jump.  Then 
notice  how  deep  and  full  you  are  breathing. 

Count  the  rate  of  your  breathing  just  before  and 
just  after  such  exercise.  Do  you  not  think  that  all 
the  cells  of  your  lungs  are  sure  to  be  put  into  use 
when  you  run  or  play  or  work?  Exercise  also  makes 
our  tissues  hungry  for  oxygen,  so  that  what  the  lungs 
take  in  is  freely  used. 

Adenoids. — Sometimes  a  growth  called  an  adenoid 
occurs  at  the  back  part  of  the  nose  cavity.  This  hin- 
ders breathing  and  causes  one  to  breathe  through  his 
mouth.  Besides  interfering  with  proper  breathing, 
adenoids  are  bad  for  the  health  in  other  ways,  and 


84 


HYGIENE  AND  HEALTH 


2. 


should  be  removed  by  the  doc- 
tor. This  can  be  done  without 
much  trouble  or  pain. 

If  one  finds  difficulty  in 
breathing  with  his  mouth  closed 
either  day  or  night,  he  should 
have  his  nose  examined  for  an 
adenoid.  Adenoids  hinder  the 
growth,  make  one  dull  mentally, 
injure  the  shape  of  the  mouth, 
and  make  the  face  and  eyes  take 
on  a  stupid  expression. 

Questions  and  experi- 
ments.— I.  Do  you  often 
have  a  cold  in  your  head? 
Does  your  nose  get  stopped 
up  so  that  it  is  hard  to 
breathe?  Do  your  nose 
passages  ever  feel  dry  and 
burning?  If  any  of  these  troubles  occur  often 
you  should  have  the  doctor  examine  your  nose. 
Some  simple  treatment  taken  in  time  might  save 
you  serious  trouble  later. 

One  of  the  best  tests  of  health  and  vigor  is  the 
amount  of  air  one's  lungs  will  hold.  This  is 
measured  by  an  instrument  called  the  spirometer 
(spi-r6m'-e-ter).  One  blows  into  the  spirometer 
tube  and  the  record  shows  how  .many  cubic 


Note  the  growth  of  adenoids 
at  the  back  of  the  nose  cav- 
ity, and  how  they  block  the 
passage  way  of  air  to  the 
lungs 


THE  AIR  AND  BREATHING  85 

inches  of  air  he  can  force  out  in  one  breath. 
If  there  is  a  spirometer  available,  test  your 
lung  capacity. 

3.  Another  test  of  the  capacity  of  your  lungs  is 
the  number  of  inches  you  can  expand  your 
chest.  Have  some  one  hold  a  tape  line  drawn 
rather  snugly  around  your  chest  just  under  the 
arms.  Take  your  measure  first  with  all  the  air 
breathed  out,  making  your  chest  just  as  small  as 
possible.  Then  take  your  measure  again  while 
you  breathe  your  lungs  very  full,  making  your 
chest  as  large  as  you  can.  The  difference  be- 
tween these  two  measures  is  your  chest  expan- 
sion. Compare  your  expansion  with  the  table 
below: 

Chest  expansion  for  boys  should  be: 

At  10  years  of  age 2 . 75  inches 

At  1 1  years  of  age 2 . 90  inches 

At  12  years  of  age 3-°5  inches 

At  13  years  of  age 3 . 25  inches 

Chest  expansion  for  girls  should  be: 

At  10  years  of  age 2.4  inches 

At  1 1  years  of  age 2.6  inches 

At  12  years  of  age 2 . 45  inches 

At  13  years  of  age 2.6  inches 


CHAPTER  XIII 

LIVING   IN  GOOD  AIR 

Air  that  has  been  breathed  and  re-breathed  several 
times  is  no  longer  capable  of  sustaining  life.  Following 
the  battle  of  Austerlitz  three  hundred  Austrian  pris- 
oners were  shut  up  in  a  little  prison  far  too  small  for 
the  number,  and  with  but  little  ventilation.  Within 
one  day  two  hundred  and  sixty  of  them  had  died  from 
heat  and  the  want  of  fresh  air. 

Another  instance  of  this  kind  occurred  in  1848 
when  the  master  of  an  English  ship  shut  one  hundred 
steerage  passengers  in  a  room  not  more  than  half  the 
size  of  an  ordinary  school  room.  They  soon  became 
frantic  for  want  of  air,  and  seventy-two  of  them  had 
died  before  they  forced  their  way  out  of  the  room. 

The  "Black  Hole"  of  Calcutta  is  the  name  given 
to  a  prison  in  Calcutta  where  years  ago  the  Hindoos 
shut  one  hundred  and  forty-six  British  prisoners  whom 
they  had  captured  in  battle.  The  room  where  they 
were  imprisoned  was  small  and  had  only  two  windows. 
They  soon  felt  the  lack  of  air,  and  the  stronger  fought 
their  way  to  the  windows.  When  morning  came  only 
twenty-three  were  left  alive. 

86 


LIVING  IN  GOOD  AIR  87 

Suffering  for  want  of  air. — Of  course,  we  no 
longer  treat  prisoners  in  this  way.  It  is  very  seldom 
indeed  that  a  person  dies  directly  from  lack  of 
enough  air  to  breathe.  We  may  all  suffer  greatly  in 
health  and  strength,  however,  from  over-crowded 
school  rooms,  moving  picture  houses  that  are  packed 
too  full,  or  even  from  several  persons  sleeping  in  a  bed- 
room that  does  not  have  its  windows  open. 

Plenty  of  open  air  is  so  important  to  our  health  and 
to  the  development  of  our  minds  that  nearly  every 
large  city  now  has  what  are  called  "open-air  school 
rooms."  These  rooms  are  built  with  one  side  entirely 
open  or  else  with  windows  so  fixed  that  the  entire  side 
of  the  room  can  be  thrown  open. 

Open-air  schools. — In  these  open-air  rooms  are 
placed  the  children  who  have  some  sickness  or  who 
are  backward  in  their  studies,  so  that  it  is  especially 
necessary  for  them  to  have  plenty  of  good  air  to 
breathe.  The  boys  and  girls  are  bundled  up  warmly 
and  here  they  get  their  lessons  just  as  if  they  were  in 
an  ordinary  school  room. 

It  has  been  found  that  boys  and  girls  always  do  bet- 
ter work  in  the  open-air  schools  than  they  do  in  the 
closed  school  rooms.  They  also  improve  in  health  and 
gain  rapidly  in  weight  and  strength.  If  plenty  of  fresh 
air  is  good  for  those  who  are  sick  or  backward,  do  you 
not  think  it  is  just  as  necessary  for  those  who  are  well 
and  strong? 

7 


88 


HYGIENE  AND  HEALTH 


Giving  the  skin  fresh  air. — The  skin  requires  an 
abundance  of  fresh  air,  just  as  do  the  lungs.  The 
story  is  told  that  years  ago  at  some  great  festival 
a  child  was  wanted  to  represent  an  angel.  They  took 
a  small  boy  and  coated  his  body  over  closely  on  the 


An  open-air  school  in  winter-time.    The  warm  wraps  and   hoods 

keep  the  children  as  comfortable  as  in  a  heated  school  room,  though 

the  snow  lies  deep  outside 

skin  with  gold  foil.  After  a  few  hours  it  was  found  that 
the  child  had  died.  He  had  had  plenty  of  air  for  his  lungs, 
but  he  also  needed  air  for  his  skin,  and  also  his  skin 
could  not  do  its  other  work  with  every  pore  clogged  up. 
Between  the  clothing  and  the  body  there  is  con- 
stantly a  thin  blanket  of  air.  This  air  soon  becomes 
heated  to  the  temperature  of  the  body  and  also  grows 


LIVING  IN  GOOD  AIR 


89 


impure  from  the  waste  matter  that  comes  through  the 
skin. 
Good  ventilation  requires  moving  air. — You  may 

have  noticed  that  if  you  become  tired  and  sleepy  from 
sitting  in  a  close  room,  you  feel  wonderfully  refreshed 


School  in  the  open  air,  where  both  lungs  and  skin  can  have  all  they 
need — no  dust,  no  dirt,  no  germs 

when  the  window  is  thrown  open  and  a  current  of  air 
is  allowed  to  pour  through  the  room.  This  feeling  of 
refreshment  is  caused  not  more  by  the  air  that  comes 
to  the  lungs  than  by  that  which  flows  over  the  surface 
of  the  body. 

Good  ventilation  therefore  requires  a  moving  cur- 
rent of  air  in  the  room.     This  current  need  not  be 


90  HYGIENE  AND  HEALTH 

strong  enough  that  we  shall  feel  a  draft,  but  it  must 
be  sufficient  to  change  the  layer  of  air  next  the  body. 
One  of  the  best  ways  to  secure  a  moving  current  of 
air  in  a  room  is  by  having  an  open  fireplace,  through 
which  a  current  of  air  constantly  passes  up  the  chimney 
and  out  of  the  room.  A  window  may  be  opened  slightly 
at  the  bottom  on  one  side  of  the  room,  and  another 
window  opened  at  the  top  on  another  side,  thus  creat- 
ing a  current  across  the  room. 

Air  that  is  too  dry. — It  is  possible  to  have  the  air 
in  our  houses  too  dry  to  be  good  for  the  lungs  or  the 
skin.  When  our  houses  are  heated  by  stoves  and 
furnaces,  or  by  steam  radiators  in  the  winter-time,  the 
air  usually  becomes  so  dry  that  furniture,  doors,  and 
other  wood-work  shrink  and  show  cracks. 

Whenever  the  air  dries  out  in  this  way  it  is  bad  for 
the  throat  and  lungs.  It  makes  the  membranes  of  the 
nose  feel  dry  and  smarting.  We  are  then  more  liable 
to  colds,  catarrh,  pneumonia,  tonsilitis,  and  other 
troubles. 

'  How  to  keep  air  moist. — If  we  have  steam  radia- 
tors, we  can  hang  at  the  back  of  the  radiator  an  open 
pan  of  water  to  evaporate  in  the  room.  The  water 
pan  should  be  fitted  into  our  hot-air  furnaces  so  that 
the  vapor  may  come  into  the  room  with  the  air.  Pans 
of  water  may  also  be  set  in  the  registers  so  that  it 
will  evaporate  into  the  room.  If  a  stove  or  fireplace 


LIVING  IN  GOOD  AIR  91 

is  running,  it  is  well  to  keep  a  kettle  of  water  over  the 
fire  so  that  the  steam  may  escape  and  add  to  the 
moisture. 

The  hygrometer  is  an  instrument  for   measuring  the 
amount  of  moisture  in  the  air.     The  air  in  our  living 


Not  sick,  just  taking  an  outdoor  nap  at  recess  time 

rooms  should  show  about  60  degrees  of  moisture  on 
the  hygrometer. 

The  right  temperature.— Many  people  keep  the 
temperature  of  their  rooms  too  high.  When  we  are 
sitting  still  reading  or  studying,  the  air  temperature 
should  usually  range  from  65  to  68  degrees  Fahrenheit. 
It  should  never  pass  70.  If  we  are  moving  about  or 
working  in  a  room  the  temperature  may  be  still  lower. 


92  HYGIENE  AND  HEALTH 

It  is  not  necessary  that  the  temperature  shall 
remain  the  same  at  all  times.  We  can  become  accus- 
tomed to  a  difference  of  as  much  as  10  degrees  so  that 
we  will  not  feel  any  discomfort  from  it.  If  we  thus 
become  used  to  changing  temperatures,  we  will  not  so 
easily  take  cold  nor  feel  the  discomforts  when  we  go 
out-of-doors  or  are  in  places  where  the  temperature 
is  cooler  than  we  are  accustomed  to. 

Interesting  questions  and  experiments. — i .   The 

experts  tell  us  that  school  rooms  should  have 
about  two  hundred  and  fifty  cubic  feet  of  air 
space  for  each  pupil.  It  will  be  interesting  for 
you  to  find  out  whether  your  school  room  meets 
this  requirement.  Measure  the  room,  find  the 
number  of  cubic  feet  it  contains,  and  divide  this 
number  by  the  number  of  pupils.  The  quotient 
should  be  at  least  250. 

2.  Do  you  ever  notice  any  closeness,  stuffiness,  or 
bad  odor  when  you  come  into  the  school  room 
or  into  your  living  rooms  at  home?     If  so,  this 
indicates  poor  ventilation.     If  the  ventilation  is 
not  good,  can  you  help  plan  how  to  improve  it? 

3.  Let  each  member  of  the  class  make  a  record  of 
the  winter  temperature  of  the  living  room  of  his 
home  in  the  morning   just  before  he  comes  to 
school  each  day  for  a  week,  do  the  same  at  noon, 
and  also  in  the  evening  at  a  certain  hour.  At  the 
end  of  one  week  of  observations,  compare  the 


LIVING  IN  GOOD  AIR 


93 


results  from  the  different  homes  to  see  whether 
the  temperature  is  higher  than  it  ought  to  be. 
If  you  have  this  lesson  when  the  furnaces  are 
running,  note  whether  the  doors,  casings  and 
furniture  in  your  home  show  the  effect  of 
drying  out.  If  they  do  you  may  know  that  the 
air  is  too  dry  for  good  health. 


X 

The  wrong  way  to  place  a  bed 

in  the  sleeping  room.     There  is 

little   circulation   of   air   in   the 

corner 


The  right  way   to  place  a  bed. 

The    air    will    circulate    freely 

over  it 


5.  Moist  air  feels  as  warm  at  60  degrees  as  very 
dry  air  feels  at  70  degrees.  What  effect  upon 
the  amount  of  coal  required  to  heat  your  home 
would  it  have  to  keep  the  air  moist  rather  than 
to  let  it  become  too  dry? 

Good  air  habits. — Some  good  habits  to  form  in 
connection  with  the  study  of  this  lesson  are  the 
following: 


94  HYGIENE  AND  HEALTH 

To  live  in  an  abundance  of  fresh  air  every  moment, 

day  and  night  whenever  possible. 
To  see  that  there  is  a  moving  current  of  air  in  which 

you    sit    or    work    or    sleep.      Unless    there    is  a 

special    ventilating   system  this  will  require  open 

windows  or  an  open  fireplace. 
To  train  yourself  to  be  comfortable  if  you  are  well 

and  strong  in  a  room  in  which  the  temperature  is 

from  60  to  65  degrees. 
To  plan  some  way  of  adding  moisture  to  the  air  in 

your  home  or  school  during  the  time  when  steam 

heat  or  furnaces  are  used. 

Health  Problems 

1.  Most  cities  forbid  the  use  of  any  fuel  that  causes  a  heavy 
smoke.    What  reasons  can  you  give  in  favor  of  such  a  law? 

2.  Are  you  getting  enough  good  air  to  breathe:    (i)  at  night, 
(2)  at  school?    How  do  you  know? 

3.  John  boasts  that  he  has  not  had  a  cold  for  over  a  year. 
George  has  a  cold  much  of  the  time.    John  sleeps  with  his 
windows  both  wide  open.     George  does  not  open  his  win- 
dow in  cold  weather.     Do  you  suppose  the  windows  have 
something  to  do  with  it? 

4.  If  you  had  to  breathe  a  good  deal  of  dust  with  the  air  you 
take  into  your  lungs,  would  you  rather  breathe  city  or 
country  dust?    Why? 


CHAPTER  XIV 

THE  HEART  AND   ITS  WORK 

You  open  the  water  faucet  and  the  water  comes 
rushing  out  of  the  pipes.  But  where  does  the  power 
come  from  that  makes  the  water  pour  out  with  such 
force?  If  you  will  trace  the  matter  back  to  the  water 
station,  you  will  find  there  a  pump,  probably  run  by 
steam  power.  It  is  the  pump  that  is  driving  the 
water  through  the  pipes  of  the  water  system. 

The  heart,  with  the  arteries  and  veins,  is  much  like 
the  water  pump  and  the  pipes  that  carry  the  water 
to  our  homes. 

The  heart  a  pump. — The  heart  is  really  a  pump. 
It  differs  from  the  water  pump,  for  it  has  within  itself 
the  power  that  does  the  pumping.  The  heart  is  a 
muscle  about  as  big  as  your  fist.  It  is  located  on  the 
left  side  of  the  chest. 

The  heart  never  stops  to  rest ;  it  rests  between  beats. 
It  continues  its  work  day  and  night  without  ceasing 
from  the  time  we  are  born  until  we  die.  Every  hour 
of  the  day,  every  minute,  it  is  driving  the  blood 
through  the  arteries  and  veins  all  over  the  body. 

The  boys  and  girls  who  read  this  chapter  have  about 

95 


96 


HYGIENE  AND  HEALTH 


Vein 


four  quarts  of  blood  in  their  bodies.  Grown  men 
have  about  six  quarts. 

The  flow  of  the 
blood. — Put  your  fin- 
ger on  the  pulse  in 

i  A  A       J- 

tst\n  A rlery  your  wrist  and  count 
the  number  of  times 
the  heart  throbs  in  a 
minute.  The  throb  of 
your  pulse  is  the  wave 
of  blood  in  the  artery 
caused  by  the  beating 
of  the  heart,  one  throb 
for  every  heart  beat. 
You  will  probably  find 
that  your  heart  is 
beating  about  eighty 
times  in  a  minute. 

At  each  beat  the 
heart  contracts  and 
forces  blood  from  its 
cavity  out  into  the 
arteries.  So  rapidly 
and  strongly  does  the 

heart  work  that  all  of  the  blood  of  your  body  makes 
the  complete  circuit  about  three  times  every  minute. 
It  takes  a  little  longer  for  the  blood  to  get  clear 
around  the  body  in  a  grown  man,  in  whose  body  the 


The  heart  with  its  arteries  and  veins 


THE  HEART  AND  ITS  WORK  97 

circuit  is  made  only  about  two  and  one-half  times  in 
a  minute. 

When  the  body  calls  for  more  oxygen. — Every- 
body has  noticed,  of  course,  that  the  heart  beats 
faster  when  we  run  or  exercise  than  when  we  are  sit- 
ting still.  The  heart  increases  in  speed  at  such  times 
because  when  we  are  exercising  we  are  using  up  energy 
faster  than  when  we  are  quiet.  The  tissues  need 
more  oxygen  and  there  is  more  carbon  dioxide  to  be 
removed.  This  means  that  the  heart  must  work 
faster,  so  it  speeds  up. 

Sometime  when  you  have  been  running  a  race  or 
playing  hard  in  a  game,  you  have  got  completely  out 
of  breath.  Your  lungs  felt  full,  as  if  they  were  bursting. 
You  simply  could  not  get  enough  air  to  breathe.  Per- 
haps your  lungs  had  shooting  pains  in  them. 

Why  we  get  out  of  breath. — Now  this  trouble  does 
not  originally  come  from  the  lungs,  but  from  the  heart. 
When  the  heart  is  able  to  give  the  lungs  plenty  of 
blood,  one  does  not  thus  get  out  of  breath.  It  would 
be  fair  to  say,  therefore,  that  our  breath  is  as  long  as 
our  heart  is  strong. 

When  we  get  badly  out  of  breath,  the  heart  is  being 
over- worked  and  we  need  to  be  careful.  If  the  heart 
is  greatly  over-strained,  especially  when  we  are  young, 
it  stretches  the  muscles.  The  beating  of  the  heart  is 
not  so  strong  after  this,  and  may  cause  us  serious 
trouble. 


98  HYGIENE  AND  HEALTH 

Training  the  heart  to  its  work. — There  is  little 
danger  of  over-working  the  heart,  providing  that  we 
do  not  exercise  too  violently  when  we  are  not  used  to 
it.  We  should  begin  gradually  in  playing  the  harder 
games  or  running  the  races,  and  not  exhaust  ourselves 
too  completely  at  first.  The  heart  will  soon  become 
accustomed  to  its  work  and  we  shall  have  plenty  of 
breath. 

Without  a  heart  that  is  able  to  force  the  blood 
strongly  through  his  arteries  and  veins,  one  can  not  be 
sturdy  and  well.  A  weak  heart  and  poor  circulation 
leaves  us  pale,  with  little  strength  and  endurance. 

I  knew  a  college  student  who  had  been  ill  and  was 
unable  to  run  more  than  a  few  rods  without  his  heart 
beating  violently  and  his  breath  becoming  very  short. 
He  went  to  the  doctor  about  it,  and  the  doctor  told 
him  that  what  he  must  do  was  to  train  his  heart 
gradually.  So  the  doctor  had  him  start  by  walking  a 
block  rather  briskly,  and  end  by  running  two  rods. 
The  next  day  the  doctor  told  him,  he  could  run  a  lit- 
tle farther,  and  the  day  after  a  little  farther  still,  and 
so  on,  until  finally  his  heart  would  be  strong  enough 
to  stand  severe  exercise. 

How  to  train  the  heart. — My  friend  faithfully 
followed  the  doctor's  directions,  and  within  a  year  was 
able  to  compete  with  other  runners  on  the  track.  He 
kept  on  developing  his  heart  and  lung  power  until 
finally  he  won  in  an  important  long  distance  race. 


THE  HEART  AND  ITS  WORK  99 

School  boys  and  girls  need  to  train  their  hearts. 
Because  they  sit  still  most  of  the  day,  they  should  get 
out  in  the  open  air  all  they  can  when  not  in  school. 
They  should  race  or  play  or  work  until  the  heart 
throbs  and  the  blood  courses  through  the  body.  They 
should  develop  heart  and  lung  power  until  they  can 
run  a  block  or  play  a  game  without  getting  out  of 
breath. 

Interesting  things  to  do. — i.  Show  how  to  find 
and  count  the  pulse  beat  in  the  wrist.  The 
beat  that  you  can  count  in  the  wrist  comes 
from  a  large  artery. 

2.  Let  each  member  of  the  class  count  his  pulse 
when  sitting  in  the  school  room.    Now  let  each 
member  of  the  class  run  one  hundred  feet  at  his 
best  speed.     Then  immediately  count  the  pulse 
to  see  how  many  beats  the  heart  has  increased 
from  the  running.    The  one  whose  heart  beat 
has  increased  least  has  won  in  this  test. 

3.  In  the  same  way  let  each  member  of  the  class 
count  the  number  of  times  he  naturally  breathes 
in  one  minute  while  sitting  in  the  school  room. 
Then   run   the   race   as   before   and    count    the 
number  of  breaths  in  one  minute  immediately 
after  running.     The   one  whose   breathing   has 
increased  least   and  who  is  least  out  of  breath 
has  won  in  this  test,  providing  he  has  run  as  far 
and  as  fast  as  the  others. 


CHAPTER  XV 

KEEPING   THE   BODY   STRAIGHT 

The  superintendent  of  a  large  business  where  many 
boys  are  employed,  tells  me  that  he  always  picks  for 
the  boy  who  can  stand  up  straight  on  both  feet. 

The  first  thing  this  superintendent  notices  is  whether 
the  boy  who  wants  a  job  carries  his  head  up,  his 
shoulders  erect  and  his  entire  body  well  poised.  He 
says  that  a  habit  of  lounging  in  standing  or  sitting 
showrs  a  careless  nature  and  inattention.  He  will  not 
hire  a  boy  who  has  a  slouchy,  shuffling  walk. 

One  of  the  first  things  a  soldier  is  taught  is  to  keep 
the  body  straight.  The  shoulders  must  be  back  and 
carried  squarely  and  evenly.  The  chest  must  be  high, 
and  the  head  well  up  with  the  chin  drawn  in.  We  all 
admire  the  appearance  of  the  soldier.  Why  should 
we  not  all  learn  to  carry  ourselves  as  straight  as 
soldiers! 

The  harm  of  bad  postures. — Good  posture  is  as 
necessary  for  our  health  as  for  our  appearance.  When 
one  curls  down  in  a  chair  or  leans  over  a  desk  with  his 
body  bent  he  is  cramping  all  the  organs  and  crowding 

100 


KEEPING  THE  BODY  STRAIGHT 


101 


them   together.      Of  course   this  interferes  with  their 
work. 

First  of  all,  a  stooping,  cramped  posture  crowds  the 
lungs.    They  do  not  have  room  to  expand,  and  can  no 


The  kind  of  "setting  up"  exercises  that  train  the  soldier  to  be  so  straight 

and  trim 

more  take  in  a  full  supply  of  air  than  a  sponge  can  take 
in  water  if  you  keep  it  squeezed  together. 

When  the  body  is  bent  in  a  curve  the  stomach  and 
the  liver  are  cramped  and  unable  to  digest  the  food 
properly.  No  doubt  many  people  who  think  their  food 


102  HYGIENE  AND  HEALTH 

disagrees  with  them  would  find  that  the  trouble  came 
from  dumping  themselves  down  in  a  chair  in  a  bad 
posture  after  eating. 

Good    sitting    postures. — The    chair   or   desk    in 
which  we  sit  should  fit  the  body.    It  should  be  so  curved 


This   outdoor   drill  will  not  only  rest  the  boys  and  girls  from  their 
studies,  but  will  teach  them  to  hold  their  bodies  straight  and  in  good 

posture 

as  to  support  the  back.  It  should  be  of  the  right 
height,  so  that  we  do  not  have  to  sit  forward  or  slide 
down  in  the  seat  to  rest  the  feet  on  the  floor.  Then, 
having  the  right  kind  of  a  seat,  we  should  train  our- 
selves to  sit  properly. 

It  is  especially  important  that  boys  and  girls  should 
learn  to  sit  well  in  school,  for  they  sit  so  much  of  the 


KEEPING  THE  BODY  STRAIGHT  103 

time.    And  bad  habits  of  posture  formed  at  this  time 
are  very  hard  to  break. 

When  one  is  at  work  at  a  table  or  desk  he  should 
sit  well  forward.  His  body  should  be  erect,  chest 
well  up,  and  head  in  good  position.  If  it  is  necessary 
to  lean  forward  toward  the  desk  the  body  should  be 
bent  from  the  hips,  and  not  curved  in  the  back. 


Avoid  such  postures  as  these.    They  cramp  all  the  organs  of  the  body, 
and  result  in  crooked  backs 

Crooked  backs. — About  one  out  of  every  five  of 
the  boys  and  girls  who  study  this  book  have  backs  or 
shoulders  that  are  more  or  less  crooked.  This  trouble 
is  called  curvature  of  the  spine. 

Not  all  cases  of  curvature  are  bad  enough  that 
they  are  easily  noticed.  Some  will  have  round  shoul- 
ders. Some  will  have  backbones  that  crook  to  one 
side.  Others  will  have  backs  that  curve  in  too  much. 


104  HYGIENE  AND  HEALTH 

A  part  of  this  difficulty  often  comes  from  certain 
diseases  of  the  bones  we  have  as  children.  But  much 
of  it  is  caused  by  our  own  bad  postures. 

Habits    to    avoid. — These   are   some   of   the   bad 


The  best  way  is  to  be  careful  not  to  make  our  backs  crooked  by  bad 

postures.     Watch  your  posture  and  see  whether  you  are  making  your 

shoulders  round  or  your  spine  crooked 

habits  of  posture  that  may  give  us  crooked  backs  or 
shoulders: 

1.  Standing    slouchily,    resting  the  weight    on 
one  foot. 

2.  Sitting  and  working  at  a  desk  which  is  too 
high,  and  which  causes  one  shoulder  to  be 
higher  than  the  other. 


KEEPING  THE  BODY  STRAIGHT 


105 


3.  Sitting  on  one  foot,  with  the  body  curved 
to  one  side. 

4.  Carrying  books  or  other  articles  under  one 
arm. 

5.  Bending  forward  as  we  work. 

How  to  stand. — A  simple  test  for  good  standing 
posture  is  this.  When  one  is  standing  correctly,  his 
body  is  so  bal- 
anced that  he  can 
rise  up  on  his  toes 
without  having  to 
sway  the  body  in 
the  least  backward 
or  forward  in  order 
to  keep  his  bal- 
ance. Another 
good  test  is  this: 
If  one's  standing 
posture  is  correct 
a  straight  stick  held  at  the  side  will  touch  the  ear,  the 
shoulder,  the  hip  joint  and  the  ball  of  the  foot. 

It  is  worth  while  for  all  of  us  to  watch  our  postures 
and  train  our  bodies  to  stand  and  sit  erect.  No  one 
likes  the  swagger  of  the  bully,  but  neither  do  we 
admire  the  slouch  of  the  tramp.  Erect,  springy  car- 
riage usually  goes  along  with  a  feeling  of  self-respect. 
We  compliment  a  person  of  decision  and  ability  by 
saying  he  is  "no  slouch." 


The  wrong  way  to  lie  while  sleeping.    The  pillow 
is  too  high,  and  the  body  bent 


io6 


HYGIENE  AND  HEALTH 


Posture  when  we  sleep. — Our  sleeping  posture  is 
as  important  as  our  waking  posture.  The  mattress 
should  not  be  too  soft,  nor  should  the  springs  sag.  We 
should  train  ourselves  to  lie  with  the  body  fully 
stretched  out  and  not  curled  up.  The  pillows  should 
be  low,  in  order  that  the  neck  may  not  be  bent  and  so 

interfere  with  the 
circulation  of  the 
blood  in  the  great 
veins  and  arteries 
that  pass  to  the 
head.  Many  per- 
sons p  r  e  fVr  to 
sleep  with  no  pil- 
low at  all.  We 
should  sleep  on 
the  side  rather 

The  right  way  to  lie  while  sleeping— pillow  low,      than   On    the    back 
and    body    straight    and    relaxed  QJ-  on    the    face. 

Interesting    things    to    do. — i.    Show    how    to 
stand  like  a  soldier  on  "inspection." 

2.  Show  how  to  sit  properly  in  a  chair  for  reading. 

3.  Show  how  to  sit  at  your  school  desk  when  you 
have  writing  or  studying  to  do. 

4.  Show  how  to  test  for  good  standing  posture  by 
use  of  a  straight  rod,  held  at  the  side. 

5.  Show  how  to  test  standing  posture  by  rising  up 
on  the  toes. 


CHAPTER  XVI 

THE  SKIN  AND   ITS   USES 

Did  you  ever  meet  with  an  accident  and  have  a  piece 
of  skin  scraped  off?  If  so,  you  have  discovered  one  of 
the  most  important  uses  of  the  skin.  This  is  to  protect 
the  delicate  and  tender  nerve  endings,  millions  of 
which  come  to  the  surface  of  the  body,  to  end  in  the 
numberless  little  organs  of  touch,  temperature  and 
pain,  which  are  in  the  skin. 

Most  wonderful  of  all  of  the  uses  of  the  skin,  how- 
ever, is  to  serve  as  a  regulator  of  the  heat  of  the  body. 
The  janitor  of  a  school  building  told  me  recently  that 
the  regulators  attached  to  the  heating  system  of  the 
building  were  so  perfect  that  the  temperature  of  the 
school  rooms  did  not  vary  more  than  a  few  degrees 
throughout  the  winter. 

This  is  truly  wonderful,  but  the  heat  of  the  body 
is  regulated  more  accurately  than  that. 

How  the  skin  regulates  the  heat  of  the  body. — 

You  may  go  out  into  the  heat  of  the  summer  sunshine 
and  run  or  play  or  work  until  you  are  streaming  with 
sweat  and  feel  perfectly  roasted.  You  may  stand  on 
a  chilly  day  in  the  fall  and  watch  a  foot-ball  game 

107 


108  HYGIENE  AND  HEALTH 

until  you  feel  as  if  you  were  half  frozen.  You  may 
go  out  skating  on  the  ice  when  the  temperature  is 
twenty  degrees  below  zero,  or  you  may  sit  quietly  in 
your  school  room  with  the  room  at  a  temperature  of 
seventy  degrees.  In  spite  of  all  these  differences  of 
temperature,  your  body,  if  you  are  well,  has  not  changed 
its  inner  temperature  by  more  than  the  fraction  of  one 
degree. 

A  remarkable  experiment. — More  than  a  century 
ago  a  number  of  scientists  tried  a  most  interesting 
and  daring  experiment.  They  fixed  up  a  number  of 
rooms  so  that  they  could  heat  them  to  any  degree  of 
temperature  that  they  chose. 

Then  they  first  tried  going  into  rooms  that  were 
well  above  100  degrees  of  temperature.  This  was  too 
warm  to  be  comfortable,  of  course,  but  they  found 
that  they  were  not  injured. 

They  kept  on  increasing  the  heat  of  their  rooms 
until  they  were  living  and  breathing  in  a  room  so  hot 
that  you  would  suppose  they  would  die.  But  the  air, 
being  dry  and  quiet,  did  not  injure  them. 

Now  we  often  put  sore  joints  into  a  box  and  then 
heat  the  air  in  the  box  to  the  boiling  point  and  over. 
But  the  joint  is  not  injured;  it  is  helped.  Of  course, 
the  living  tissue  of  the  joint  does  not  get  as  hot  as  the 
air  around  it.  It  would  die  if  it  did.  It  is  protected 
by  a  layer  of  quiet  air  next  to  the  skin,  which  the  skin 
is  able  in  a  remarkable  manner  to  keep  cooled  down. 


THE  SKIN  AND  ITS  USES 


109 


We  learned  in  an  earlier  chapter,  as  you  will  remem- 
ber, that  the  body  can  not  change  its  inner  temperature 
more  than  a  few  degrees  without  the  most  serious 
consequences. 

This  wonderful  regu- 
lation of  temperature  is 
brought  about  by  the 
skin.  To  understand 
how  the  skin  works,  it 
will  be  necessary  to 
know  something  of  its 


structure. 


air— Mouth  of  tub* 
or  pore 

^Epidermis 


-Dermis 


— Sweat  gland 


The  structure  of 
the  skin. — The  skin  is 
about  as  thick  as  the 
leather  in  the  upper  of 
your  shoe.  It  consists 
of  two  layers.  There 
is  first  an  outer,  hard, 
tough  layer  called  the 
epidermis,  which  is 
made  of  scaly  cells 
which  are  not  sensible 
to  pain  and  which  do  not  bleed  when  scraped  or 
cut.  These  outer  cells  are  constantly  falling  and 
rubbing  off.  They  form  in  little  rolls  when  you  rub  the 
skin  after  a  bath.  They  also  form  the  dandruff  in  your 
hair.  Next  there  is  an  inner  layer  called  the  dertnis,  which 


This  drawing  shows  a  section  of  the  skin, 
very  much  magnified,  with  a  sweat  gland 
and  its  tube  leading  to  the  surface.  The 
sweat  glands  are  so  close  together  that 
the  skin  contains  many  millions  of  them 


no 


HYGIENE  AND  HEALTH 


contains  many  nerves  and  blood-vessels.  When  this  layer 
of  the  skin  is  cut  or  torn  it  causes  pain  and  bleeding. 

Opening  outward  on 
every  portion  of  the 
skin  are  millions  of 
little  mouths  or  wells 
called  pores.  These 
lead  by  a  tiny  spiral 
tube  down  through  the 
skin,  where  they  end  in 
a  little  knob  or  gland. 
These  are  the  sweat 
glands  and  their  open- 
ings. Now  let  us  see 
how  the  sweat  glands 
work. 


When  the  weather  is  not  warm,  or 
when  the  body  is  not  heated  up  by 
exercise,  the  sweat  glands  may  not 
send  out  more  than  a  pint  of  moisture 
to  be  evaporated;  but  when  the  body 
is  greatly  heated  they  may  supply 
enough  to  fill  the  gallon  measure 


The  pores  and  sweat  glands. — When  the  body 
becomes  heated  by  exercise  or  from  being  in  too  high 
a  temperature,  a  watery  fluid  called  perspiration  is 
gathered  by  these  glands  and  poured  out  through  their 
numberless  little  tubes  upon  the  surface  of  the  skin. 
We  then  say  that  the  person  is  sweating  or  perspiring. 
The  perspiration  immediately  begins  to  evaporate  from 
the  skin.  It  is  the  evaporating  of  the  perspiration  that 
cools  the  body  when  it  becomes  too  heated. 

The  amount  of  sweat  given  out  in  a  day  by  an  adult 
may  vary  from  one  pint  to  at  least  a  gallon,  depending 
upon  the  temperature  in  which  the  person  works. 


THE  SKIN  AND  ITS  USES  1 1 1 

When  the  body  becomes  cold  the  pores  close  and  the 
perspiration  is  checked.  The  heat  of  the  body  then 
rises. 

If  anything  happens  to  interfere  with  the  regulation 
of  the  body's  heat,  the  temperature  rises  and  we  then 
have  a  fever. 

We  must  remember  that  these  sweat  glands  are  con- 
stantly at  work,  even  when  we  do  not  know  that  wo 
are  perspiring.  Because  of  this  the  skin  is  always 
somewhat  moist. 

Evaporation  cools  the  body. — It  is  the  evapora- 
tion of  this  moisture  on  the  skin  that  makes  it  easy  to 
take  cold  if  one  sits  down  in  a  draft.  For  when  moving 
air  passes  rapidly  over  the  moist  skin,  the  evaporation 
is  very  rapid,  and  the  cooling  is  therefore  quick. 

WTien  the  skin  is  suddenly  cooled,  the  blood  is 
driven  away  from  the  surface  of  the  body.  It  there- 
upon is  forced  to  some  other  part  of  the  body,  as  the 
throat  or  nose,  and  congests  the  blood-vessels  by  over- 
crowding. This  is  not  the  whole  story,  for  there  often 
are  germs  in  our  nose  waiting  for  just  such  an  oppor- 
tunity as  this  to  inflame  the  nose. 

It  is  this  congestion  of  the  blood-vessels  which  gives 
us  the  feeling  of  stuffiness  in  our  nose  and  throat  when 
a  cold  begins. 

To  prevent  colds  one  should  therefore  keep  the  body 
from  cooling  too  rapidly,  especially  if  the  skin  is  moist 


112  HYGIENE  AND  HEALTH 

from    excessive    perspiration.      This   means    that    we 
should  avoid  sitting  in  drafts  when  we  are  heated. 

Driving  away  a  cold. — If  we  feel  a  cold  coming  on, 
the  remedy  is  to  draw  the  blood  away  from  the  place 
where  it  is  becoming  congested.  To  do  this  we  should 
rest  in  a  room  where  the  air  is  fresh.  We  may  then 
take  a  hot  bath,  soak  the  feet  in  hot  water,  drink 
hot  liquids,  like  lemonade,  and  cover  up  warmly  in  bed. 

Questions  to  answer. — i.  Why  does  the  doctor 
put  his  thermometer  under  your  tongue  to  see 
how  sick  you  are?  How  many  degrees  should 
the  thermometer  show  if  you  are  well?  About 
what  is  your  temperature  if  you  have  a  slight 
fever?  If  you  have  a  high  fever? 

2.  Suppose  after  you  have  been  out  playing  until 
you  are  very  warm   you  come  into  the  house 
and  find  a  cool  breeze  blowing  in  through  an 
open   window.     Should   you    sit    down    in    the 
breeze  to  cool  off?    Why? 

3.  What  are  the  signs  by  which  you  can  tell  a  cold 
coming  on?    Does  your  throat  get  sore?     Does 
your  head  feel  stopped  up?     Do  you  get  hoarse? 
Do  your  lungs  feel  tight?    Does  your  head  ache? 
Tell  what  you  can  do,  when  a  cold  threatens, 
in  order  to  drive  it  away. 

4.  Georgia  has  a  sore  throat  and  is  coughing  badly 
but  wants  to  go  to  school.    What  do  you  advise 
about  it? 


CHAPTER  XVII 

KEEPING   CLEAN 

One  of  the  first  and  I  suppose  best  reasons  for  keeping 
clean  is  that  it  is  more  or  less  of  a  disgrace  to  be  dirty. 

Of  course  one  may  get  his  hands  much  soiled  and 
his  body  covered  with  dust  and  dirt  in  his  play  or  his 
work.  But  nobody  minds  fresh  dirt  which  is  washed 
off  as  soon  as  possible.  It  is  the  dirt  that  is  left  on  that 
is  repulsive. 

If  we  have  dirty  hands  and  face,  unwashed  and  un- 
combed hair,  a  body  that  needs  a  bath  but  does  not 
get  it,  these  are  telltale  signs  to  every  one  about  us  that 
we  lack  something  of  neatness  and  good  breeding. 

Keeping  the  pores  open. — But  there  is  another 
important  reason  why  the  skin  should  be  kept  clean. 
This  is  to  keep  the  pores  open.  We  learned  in  the  last 
chapter  how  the  glands  of  the  skin  regulate  the  heat 
of  the  body  by  the  sweat  they  pour  out  on  the  surface 
of  the  skin.  The  sweat  is  chiefly  water,  but  it  also 
contains  a  certain  amount  of  solid  waste  matter  from 
the  tissues. 

An  average  of  perhaps  two  or  three  teaspoonfuls  of 
this  waste  is  thrown  out  through  the  pores  each  day. 


HYGIENE  AND  HEALTH 


The  solid  matter  unites  with  an  oily  substance  that 
comes  from  small  glands  at  the  roots  of  the  hairs  which 
cover  most  of  the  body.  This  mixture  sticks  to  the 

skin,    and    clogs   up   the 
mouths  of  the  pores. 

When  the  pores  are 
clogged  the  sending  out 
of  perspiration  is  inter- 
fered with  and  the  proper 
regulation  of  the  body's 
heat  is  impossible.  The 
waste  matter  and  oil  soon 
grow  stale  on  the  skin  if 
they  are  not  removed  and 
come  to  have  an  un- 
pleasant odor.  And  who 
wants  to  offend  others  by 
the  odors  from  his  body! 


Good  bathing  hab- 
its.— The  body  should  be 
thoroughly  washed  with 
warm  water  and  soap 
about  twice  a  week. 
Many  persons  take  a 

bath  every  day.  This  is  a  good  habit  to  form,  though 
it  is  not  necessary  that  hot  water  baths  shall  be  taken 
so  frequently. 

For  those  who  are  well  and  vigorous  a  good  rule  is 


Every  really  clean  boy  and  girl  de- 
sires to  start  each  day  with  a  good 
wash  for  hands  and  face,  and  to  take 
a  bath  often  enough  to  keep  the  skin 
fresh  and  clean 


KEEPING  CLEAN  115 

to  take  a  cold  sponge  or  shower  every  morning,  and  a 
hot  bath  once  or  twice  a  week.  Since  hot  baths  cause 
us  to  relax  and  get  sleepy,  they  should  be  taken  at  night 
when  we  are  ready  for  bed.  The  cold  bath  awakens 
and  invigorates,  so  it  should  be  taken  in  the  morning. 
Some  people  do  not  like  cold  baths.  They  shiver 
and  shrink  at  the  very  idea.  Now  no  one  should  take 
a  cold  bath  if  it  leaves  him  cold  and  chilly  afterward. 
There  must  be  a  reaction  and  glow  over  the  skin  if 
the  cold  bath  is  to  have  a  good  effect. 

Learning  to  enjoy  cold  baths. — But  one  who 

shrinks  from  cold  water  can  usually  train  the  skin  by 
starting  with  moderately  cool  water,  and  then  going 
on  from  day  to  day  with  water  a  few  degrees  colder. 
It  is  well  to  start  with  a  temperature  of  about  80 
degrees.  The  training  may  go  on  until  the  shock  is 
not  too  great  with  water  at  50  degrees. 

A  good  way  to  take  a  cold  bath  at  first  is  to  stand  in 
a  tub  of  warm  water  up  nearly  to  the  knees.  Then 
sponge  the  body  with  water  as  cold  as  can  be  endured 
without  too  much  chilling.  As  soon  as  the  sponging 
is  finished  step  out  of  the  tub  and  rub  the  body  with  a 
coarse  towel  until  a  glow  is  produced  and  the  body 
feels  warm.  After  a  few  days  of  this  practise,  a  strong, 
healthy  person  may  shower  or  pour  the  cold  water  over 
the  body  instead  of  using  the  sponge.  The  cold  bath 
should  always  be  taken  in  a  warm  room,  and  should 
occupy  only  a  few  minutes. 


Il6  HYGIENE  AND  HEALTH 

Training  the  skin  against  taking  cold®. — If  we 

get  our  skin  trained  to  cold  water  bathing,  it  will  do 
much  to  insure  against  taking  cold.  The  wearing  of 
loose  porous  clothing  which  allows  a  free  air  bath  of 
the  skin  as  we  go  about  our  work  or  play  will  also  do 
much  to  toughen  the  skin  against  colds. 

The  skin  of  the  face  and  hands  may  get  rough,  chap, 
and  even  crack  open  from  exposure  to  cold  winds. 
The  hands  will  also  chap  from  getting  them  wet  in  the 
snow.  To  prevent  chapping,  the  skin  may  be  rubbed 
before  going  out  with  glycerine,  vaseline  or  with  rose 
water.  Chapping  may  be  cured  by  bathing  the  skin 
in  soft,  warm  water,  drying  carefully,  and  then  rubbing 
with  any  good  oil  or  face  cream. 

The  important  points  to  remember  about  the 
skin. — After  the  perspiration  has  evaporated 
the  waste  matter  and  oil  from  the  hair  roots  re- 
main on  the  skin.  These  clog  the  pores  and  give 
off  a  bad  odor,  which  tells  everybody  that  we 
need  a  bath. 

When  the  skin  is  not  kept  clean  it  can  no  longer 
regulate  the  heat  of  the  body.  We  are  then  liable 
to  colds  and  other  dangers  to  our  health.  The  only 
way  to  keep  the  skin  clean  is  by  frequent  bathing. 

The  skin  can  be  trained  to  enjoy  a  cold  bath  or  the 
contact  of  cool  air.  Training  of  the  skin  in  this 
way  is  one  of  the  best  safe-guards  against  tak- 
ing cold. 


KEEPING  CLEAN  117 

Very  rapid  cooling  of  the  skin  when  we  are  perspiring 
is  always  dangerous,  and  we  should  never  run  the 
risk  of  drafts  when  we  are  heated. 

Good  habits  to  form. — i.  The  habit  of  taking  a 
cold  shower  or  sponge  every  morning  as  a  pro- 
tection against  colds  and  as  a  matter  of  clean- 
liness. 

2.  The  habit  of  taking  a  warm  bath  with  plenty  of 
soap  and  rubbing   just  before  going  to  bed  at 
least  once  a  week;   twice  is  better.     If  the  warm 
bath    is    taken    during    the    day   it   should  be 
followed  with  a  dash  of  cold  water. 

3.  Wearing  the  very  lightest  clothing  in  the  morn- 
ing while  brushing  the  teeth,  combing  the  hair  or 
performing  other  tasks  about  our  room.     This 
will  train  the  skin  to  changes   of   temperature. 

Health  Problems 

Make  a  list  of  the  health  "friend-habits'*  you  have  formed. 
The  day  was  warm  and  Harold  had  played  hard  and  grown 
rather  sweaty.  He  was  tired  and  sleepy  when  he  prepared 
for  bed,  so  he  dumped  his  clothes  in  a  pile  on  the  floor.  In 
the  morning  they  were  damp  and  did  not  smell  fresh.  Can 
you  give  the  rules  Harold  should  follow  about  his  clothes 
when  he  prepares  for  bed? 

Do  you  follow  the  rules  you  have  given  for  the  care  of  the 
clothes  when  you  prepare  for  bed? 


CHAPTER  XVII! 

CLOTHING  AND   ITS   CARE 

Long  ago,  in  the  time  before  there  were  civilized 
nations  or  great  cities,  people  wore  very  little  clothing. 
In  warm  countries  there  were  to  be  found  many  tribes 
who  wore  almost  no  clothes  at  all.  And  even  yet  there 
are  to  be  found  primitive  peoples  whose  customs  permit 
them  to  go  about  with  the  body  but  partly  covered. 

With  us  clothing  has  become  a  very  important 
matter.  Everybody  likes  to  be  neat  and  well-dressed. 
The  person  who  goes  with  ragged  or  dirty  clothes  is 
very  unfortunate  and  to  be  pitied. 

Materials  for  our  clothing. — Four  great  materials 
go  into  the  making  of  the  fabric  for  our  clothing: 
cotton  from  the  fields  of  the  sunny  South  and  other 
warm  countries;  wool  from  the  backs  of  the  sheep; 
linen  from  the  fiber  of  the  flax;  and  silk  spun  by  the 
silk  worm.  The  producing  of  these  materials  and 
making  them  up  into  clothing  is  one  of  our  greatest 
industries. 

Making  our  clothing  look  well. — There  are  cer- 
tain rules  which  must  be  followed  if  our  clothes  are  to 
look  well. 

118 


CLOTHING  AND  ITS  CARE  119 

1.  Our  clothes  must  be  planned  for  the  use  we  de- 
sire of  them.    When  our  work  is  rough  and  heavy 
our  clothes  must  be  of  heavy,  strong  material, 
and  be  plainly  made.     Our  school  clothes  should 
be  of   strong,  durable   material  which  is  easily 
made  clean.     Our  best  clothes  may  be  of  finer 
material,  and  more  attractively  made. 

2.  In  order  to  be  attractive,  our  clothes  must  fit 
us.    They  must  not  be  too  large  nor  too  small, 
nor  look  as  if  they  had  been  planned  for  some 
one  else. 

3.  No  clothing,  no  matter  how  fine,  looks  well  if 
it  is  not  properly  cared  for.     Clothes  should  be 
kept  neat  and   clean  with    no    rips   nor   places 
that  need  patching,  and  with  no  missing  buttons. 

Four  things  required  of  clothing. — Besides  mak- 
ing our  clothing  attractive,  there  are  four  other  things 
to  have  in  mind  in  planning  our  dress.  These  are: 

1.  Proper  ventilation  of  the  skin. 

2.  Reasonable  warmth. 

3.  Cleanliness. 

4.  Freedom  from  pressure  or  binding. 

We  learned  in  an  earlier  lesson  the  important  part 
the  skin  plays  in  regulating  the  heat  of  the  body  and 
helping  the  body  get  rid  of  waste  material.  Our 
clothes  should  be  of  such  fabrics  as  will  allow  the  air 
to  come  freely  to  the  skin,  and  at  the  same  time 
keep  it  warm. 


120  HYGIENE  AND  HEALTH 

The  right  kind  of  cloth.— Cloth  that  is  loose  and 
porous  will  allow  the  air  to  pass  through  much  more 
readily  than  cloth  that  is  hard  and  close  woven.  Under- 
wear should  therefore  always  be  of  a  porous  kind  of 
cloth.  The  outer  clothing  also  is  better  when  it  is  made 
of  cloth  having  a  loose  weave  rather  than  a  hard, 
glazed  material.  Even  the  linings  of  coats  and  vests 
should  be  of  porous  cloth. 

It  is  necessary  when  we  are  out  in  a  heavy  rain  to 
wear  a  rubber  coat  if  we  would  keep  dry.  But  one  soon 
feels  the  discomfort  from  a  rubber  coat,  even  on  a  cool 
day.  The  skin  can  not  get  a  supply  of  fresh  air  through 
the  rubber,  and  the  entire  body  suffers  from  its  lack. 

The  warmth  of  clothing. — The  amount  of  cloth- 
ing we  wear  should  be  regulated  by  the  coldness  of  the 
weather  and  the  amount  of  exercise  we  are  taking. 
While  one  should  wear  clothing  enough  to  be  com- 
fortable, it  is  always  a  mistake  to  wear  thicker  cloth- 
ing than  we  need.  This  is  because  heavy  clothing  does 
not  allow  the  ventilation  of  the  body  as  easily  as 
thinner  clothing. 

Woolens  protect  against  the  cold  better  than  any 
other  fabric  since  woolen  cloth  has  many  air  spaces 
among  its  fibers.  And  these  air  spaces  are  poor  con- 
ductors of  heat,  and  therefore  do  not  allow  the  body 
to  cool  off  readily.  Clothing  of  light  color  is  some- 
what cooler  in  summer  and  warmer  io  winter  than  dark 
clothing. 


CLOTHING  AND  ITS  CARE 


121 


Woolen  and  cotton  clothing. — Some  prefer  under- 
wear of  wool,  some  of  cotton,  some  linen,  others  silk, 
while  still  others  mixtures  of  two  or  three  of  these 
fabrics.  It  really  makes  little  difference  which  we 
choose  after  we  get 
used  to  one.  The 
important  thing  is 
that  our  underwear 
be  very  porous, 
since  it  is  not  so 
much  the  material 
as  the  layer  of  air 
it  encloses  which 
keeps  us  warm.  For 
that  reason  a  coarse 
webbing  like  a  fish- 
erman's net  is  very 
satisfactory. 

For  sick  persons 
woolen  underwear 
is,  on  the  whole,  the 
best.  It  will  keep 
dry  longest,  and  when  moist  chills  the  skin  less. 
The  great  objection  to  wool  is  that  we  all  prefer 
thin  underwear,  since  our  houses  are  warm  and  we 
don  our  overcoats  when  we  go  outdoors,  but  a  thin 
woolen  garment  is  expensive  and  easily  ruined  in 
the  laundry. 


Woolen    outside    garments    make    the    best 
protection  against  the  winter's  cold 


122  HYGIENE  AND  HEALTH 

Keeping  our  clothing  clean. — Our  clothing  should 
be  kept  clean,  first  of  all,  because  nobody  likes  to  see 
one  in  dirty  garments.  One's  under-garments  quickly 
become  soiled  from  the  perspiration  and  waste  matter 
of  the  skin,  and  should  be  changed  at  least  twice  a 
week. 

The  outer  garments  should,  as  far  as  possible,  be 
of  goods  that  can  be  washed.  If  it  is  necessary  to  wear 
a  fabric  that  can  not  be  washed,  it  should  be  thoroughly 
sponged  or  dry  cleaned  often  enough  that  it  may  also 
be  fresh  and  free  from  dirt. 

No  piece  of  clothing  on  any  part  of  the  body  should 
be  tight  enough  to  bind.  This  is  because  an  important 
part  of  the  circulation  of  the  blood  is  carried  on  imme- 
diately beneath  the  skin. 

Why  our  clothes  should  not  be  tight. — Tight 
belts,  neckwear,  garters,  or  other  clothing,  hinder  this 
circulation,  and  also  may  interfere  somewhat  with  the 
flow  of  blood  in  the  deeper  veins.  Especially  should 
one  not  wear  tight  bands  around  the  neck  to  interfere 
with  the  flow  of  blood  from  the  brain.  Hats  which  bind 
tightly  on  the  head  also  interfere  with  the  circulation 
of  blood  in  the  scalp,  and  this  may  prove  an  injury 
to  the  hair. 

Tight  shoes  which  interfere  with  the  circulation  of 
blood  in  the  feet  not  only  produce  corns,  but  tend  to 
keep  one's  feet  cold  in  cold  weather.  They  also  pre- 
vent the  proper  development  of  the  feet,  and  weaken 


CLOTHING  AND  ITS  CARE  123 

them.  Low  shoes  and  sandals  are  better  than  high 
shoes,  since  they  allow  the  air  to  come  more  freely  to 
the  feet. 

Habits  worth  forming  about  our  clothing.— 

1.  Having  a  reasonable  pride  in  our  clothes,  so  that 
we    shall   always   desire   to  be  neat,  clean  and 
attractive. 

2.  Using  care  not  to  soil  or  wear  out  our  clothes 
more  than  is  necessary. 

3.  Keeping  our  clothes  well  brushed,  spots  sponged 
off,  and  worn  places  repaired. 

4.  Keeping  our  clothes  carefully  hung  up  or  laid 
away  when  we   are  not  wearing  them,   so  that 
they  will  not  get  soiled  and  wrinkled. 

Health  Problems 

1.  Look  your  clothing  over  to  see  whether  there  are  spots 
that  ought  to  be  removed. 

2.  Give  directions  (ask  your  mother)  for  removing  grease  spots; 
fruit  stains;   ink  stains. 

3.  Discover   how   many  different   kinds   of   materials    (wool, 
cotton,  etc.)  are  represented  in  the  clothing  you  are  now 
wearing.     Tell  how  each  is  grown  or  produced. 

4.  Do  you  think  it  is  a  good  plan  for  one  to  begin  in  the  fall 
to  bundle  the  throat  up  with  wraps? 

5.  What  "clothing  habits"  ought  children  to  form?     Make  a 
list  of  ten  such  habits. 


CHAPTER  XIX 

WHEN   WE   PLAY 

After  work  then  play!  All  the  really  fine,  promising 
boys  and  girls  I  know  like  to  play.  I  think  all  of  them 
like  to  work,  too.  At  least  it  is  much  more  fun  to 
play  when  one  has  done  his  work,  so  that  he  has  earned 
the  right  to  play. 

Years  ago  most  people  thought  that  time  spent  in 
play  was  wasted.  In  the  New  England  Primer,  which 
was  used  as  a  reading  book  when  your  great  grand- 
parents went  to  school,  children  are  urged  to  "mind 
little  play."  After  their  work  was  done  I  suppose 
they  were  expected  to  sit  solemn  and  "be  good"! 

Now  we  know  that  just  as  every  one  ought  to  work, 
so  ought  every  one  to  play.  For  play  quickens  the  heart 
beat,  makes  us  breathe  deep  and  strong,  and  helps  in 
many  ways  to  health  and  growth. 

Why  we  play. — While  play  is  good  for  the  health, 
one  does  not  want  of  course  to  think  about  his  health 
while  playing.  We  play  best  and  get  the  most  good  out 
of  it  when  we  play  for  the  fun  of  playing.  We  play 
to  develop  skill  and  become  expert  in  games.  And  we 
also  play  to  win  in  the  game  when  we  can  win  fairly, 

124 


WHEN  WE  PLAY 


125 


It  is  worth  while  to  know  how  to  play.  One  never 
likes  to  have  to  say,  "I  don't  know  how  to  play  that 
game/'  or  "I  can  not  play  that  well."  We  should  not 
be  satisfied  to  know  how  to  play  just  a  few  games, 
but  should  learn  as  many  as  possible  of  the  plays  and 
games  suitable  to  our  age. 


INDIAN    CLUB    RACE 

Three  clubs  are  stood  upright  in  a  small  circle.  The  runner  starts 
from  a  point  thirty  feet  away,  runs  and  moves  one  of  the  clubs  to 
an  adjoining  circle,  and  returns  to  the  starting  point;  she  makes  one 
trip  for  each  of  the  three  clubs.  The  one  who  can  move  all  three 
clubs  in  the  shortest  time  has  won  the  game 

Rules  we  must  learn. — There  are  certain  rules 
which  coaches  and  trainers  of  athletes  always  insist 
upon,  and  which  every  one  should  follow. 

I.     Break  in  to  hard  playing  gradually  so  as  not 
to  over-tax  the  strength. 


126  HYGIENE  AND  HEALTH 

2.  Play  only  in   air  that  is   pure   and    free   from 
dust. 

3.  Do   not   play   hard    just    before    or    just    after 
eating . 

4.  Take  a  bath  after  finishing  a  game. 

5.  Always  be  fair  and   square  in   a   game,   never 
cheating   nor   taking   unfair   advantage    of    an 
opponent. 

When  the  foot-ball  team  starts  work  in  the  fall  or 
the  runners  begin  to  train  for  the  track  meet,  the 
coach  requires  that  they  break  in  gradually.  They 
do  not  try  full  speed  at  first,  for  this  would  keep 
them  from  reaching  their  full  strength. 

When  one  plays  he  breathes  very  much  more  air 
into  the  lungs  than  when  he  is  still.  It  is  therefore 
important  that  the  air  he  breathes  should  be  free  from 
dust  and  impurities.  We  should  play  out-of-doors  on 
the  grass  or  clean  play-ground  whenever  possible. 

Good  air  where  we  play. — We  can  hardly  do  a 
worse  thing  than  to  play  in  a  room  where  the  air  is 
bad  or  where  dust  rises  from  the  floor  as  we  play. 
Not  only  will  playing  in  this  kind  of  place  keep  us  from 
getting  any  advantage  from  the  playing,  but  it  may 
very  seriously  endanger  our  health.  When  we  are 
forced  to  play  inside,  as  in  a  gymnasium  or  play-room, 
we  should  see  that  the  floor  is  very  clean  and  free  from 
dust  and  that  the  windows  are  wide  open,  so  that 
plenty  of  fresh  air  may  enter. 


WHEN  WE  PLAY 


127 


I  know  a  boy  who  is  fine  in  his  play  and  games.  He 
can  outrun  and  out  jump  most  other  boys  of  his  age. 
But  for  several  nights  past  when  he  has  come  in  to 
supper  from  play  he  has  not  been  hungry.  When  his 
mother  asked  him  about  his  appetite,  he  said,  "Oh,  I 
guess  I  played  too  hard,  that  is  all." 


Getting   fresh   air   and    sunshine   while   at   play 

Playing  hard  just  before  meals. — It  is  possible 
to  play  too  hard  just  before  meals  and  to  become  so 
excited  and  wrought  up  that  we  lose  our  appetite 
because  of  the  strain  of  the  play.  If  the  play  is  hard 
and  tiring,  one  should  quit  his  play  at  least  half  an  hour 
before  meal-time.  He  should  then  sit  down  or  lie 


128  HYGIENE  AND  HEALTH 

down  and  rest  before  eating.  If  he  does  not  do  this, 
he  will  find  that  he  is  not  quite  so  good  in  his  plays 
after  a  time.  His  growth  will  not  go  on  quite  as  fast 
as  it  should,  and  he  will  not  be  as  strong  as  he  would 
like  to  be.  A  good  athlete  must  be  a  good  eater. 

Nor  should  one  play  too  soon  after  eating.  When 
one  has  eaten  a  full  meal  the  blood  flows  to  the  stomach 
to  enable  it  to  carry  on  its  digestion  of  the  food.  Now 
if  one  goes  immediately  to  play  as  soon  as  he  has 
finished  his  meal,  the  muscles  and  skin  call  for  the 
blood.  The  stomach  is  robbed  of  its  proper  supply. 
It  is  plain  that  the  digestion  of  our  food  can  not  go  on 
so  well  under  these  conditions. 

Playing  after  eating. — There  is  another  reason 
why  we  should  not  play  exciting  games  too  soon  after 
eating.  Some  experiments  recently  performed  upon 
cats  show  that  if  the  cat  is  excited  or  irritated  soon 
after  eating,  the  food  does  not  digest  as  it  should. 
Excitement  hinders  digestion.  We  should  give  both 
body  and  mind  a  brief  rest  after  eating. 

After  athletes  have  been  in  a  game,  they  always 
come  in  and  immediately  take  a  bath.  We  should  do 
exactly  the  same  way,  for  the  activity  of  play  increases 
our  perspiration  and  the  amount  of  waste  matter 
brought  to  the  surface  of  the  skin. 

The  bath  following  the  game. — Usually  the  body 
gathers  more  or  less  dust  in  the  course  of  playing,  and 
this  mixes  with  the  sweat  and  waste  of  the  skin.  This 


WHEN  WE  PLAY  129 

greasy  dirt  coating  must  be  washed  off  in  order  to 
give  the  skin  the  chance  to  do  its  work  properly. 

Another  good  reason  for  bathing  after  playing  is 
that  everybody  wants  to  feel  that  he  is  clean  and  neat 
all  the  time.  He  can  not  feel  this  way  unless  he  has 
cleaned  up  after  his  play. 

Interesting  things  to  do. — i.  Have  a  contest  in 
the  class  to  see  who  can  write  down  the  longest 
list  of  the  names  of  plays  and  games. 

2.  Write  down  the  names  of  all  the  games  and  plays 
you  know  how  to  play.    Which  are  suitable  for 
indoor  and  which  for  outdoor  playing? 

3.  Lay  off  a  running  track  of  100  feet  along  one 
side  of  the  play-ground.     Then  have  races  and 
time   the   different  runners  with    a  watch   that 
has  a  second  hand. 

4.  Plan  contests  of  broad  jumping,  high  jumping, 
chinning  the  bar,  etc.      Dig   up  with    a   spade 
a   soft   place   to  light  on  in   the   jumping.     In 
jumping  matches,  athletes  never  light  on  hard 
ground,  as  the  jar  injures  them. 

Health  Problems 

1.  Margery  complained  that  the  girls  did  not  want  her  to  play 
with  them.    The  girls  said  that  Margery  never  would  play 
what  the  rest  wanted,  but  always  insisted  on  playing  what 
she  liked  best.     What  would  you  advise  Margery  to  do 
about  it? 

2.  Report  on  Health  Crusader  habits. 


CHAPTER  XX 

SLEEP,    REST  AND   DREAMS 

If  there  is  a  baby  at  your  house,  you  have  probably 
noticed  that  about  every  time  you  go  to  look  at  it,  it 
is  asleep.  For  the  first  year  of  its  life  the  baby  should 
sleep  about  sixteen  hours  out  of  every  twenty-four. 

By  the  time  you  were  two  years  old  you  had  slept 
a  year  and  a  half.  When  you  were  ten  years  old  you 
had  slept  about  six  years.  When  you  are  twenty  you 
will  have  slept  ten  years.  Taking  our  life-time  through, 
we  average  sleeping  fully  one-third  of  the  time. 

The  importance  of  sleep. — Sleep  is  so  important 
that  no  one  can  live  beyond  four  or  five  days  without 
sleeping.  Soldiers  who  are  kept  many  hours  without 
sleep,  as  in  a  battle,  often  get  so  sleepy  that  they  will 
fall  asleep  with  the  shells  bursting  around  them. 

It  is  said  that  when  in  olden  times  cruel  jailers  wished 
to  torment  prisoners,  they  would  do  this  by  keeping 
them  awake  for  several  days  at  a  time.  This  is  one  of 
the  most  cruel  punishments  that  could  be  invented. 

If  you  want  to  grow  rapidly  and  be  well  and  strong, 
you  must  make  sure  of  plenty  of  good  unbroken  sleep. 
Children  from  ten  to  twelve  years  of  age  should  have 

130 


SLEEP,  REST  AND  DREAMS  131 

at  least  ten  hours  of  sleep,  and  some  may  require  as 
much  as  eleven. 

Regular  habits  about  sleeping. — One  should 
have  a  regular  time  to  go  to  bed,  and  not  go  early, one 
night  and  late  the  next.  One  reason  for  this  is  that  we 
can  train  ourselves  to  become  sleepy  at  a  certain  time 
and  then  go  to  sleep  much  more  quickly  when  we  go  to 
bed  than  if  we  do  not  have  any  certain  time  for  retiring. 

Our  bed-time  should  be  reasonably  early,  so  that  we 
may  arise  early  in  the  morning.  If  we  get  up  late  we 
usually  have  to  hurry  with  our  breakfast  in  order  to 
get  away  to  school  in  time. 

Good  sleep  and  good  nature  go  together. — Have 
you  ever  noticed  that  some  mornings  you  get  up 
happy  and  cheerful,  and  everything  seems  pleasant? 
Another  morning  you  may  awaken  cross  and  tired, 
and  everything  you  touch  goes  wrong.  Your  good 
mornings  always  follow  a  good  night  of  sleep,  and  your 
bad  mornings  a  night  when  your  sleep  was  not  restful, 
or  when  you  did  not  have  enough. 

It  has  been  found  by  careful  experiments  that  one 
sleeps  much  more  soundly  the  first  one  or  two  hours 
after  he  gets  to  sleep  than  he  does  later  in  the  night. 
And  yet  this  first  sleep  would  seem  to  be  no  more 
restful  than  sleep  in  the  later  part  of  the  sleep  period. 

We  often  dream  when  we  are  asleep,  and  no  doubt 
you  have  often  wondered  at  the  queer  things  that 
come  into  your  dreams. 


132  HYGIENE  AND  HEALTH 

Dreams. — We  will  understand  dreams  better  if  we 
remember  that  they  are  nothing  but  sleep  thinking. 
When  we  are  asleep  there  is  nothing  to  control  the 
current  of  our  thoughts  as  there  is  when  we  are  awake, 
so  they  run  off  in  many  strange  directions  and  play 
us  queer  tricks.  Most  of  our  dreams  do  not  matter, 
but  sometimes  we  have  dreams  that  frighten  us  and 
disturb  our  sleep. 

Bad  dreams  are  sometimes  caused  by  indigestion 
coming  from  heavy  suppers,  or  from  eating  indigestible 
things  just  before  going  to  bed.  It  is  thought  that 
"nightmares"  may  also  be  caused  by  lying  in  cramped 
positions  when  we  are  asleep,  and  in  this  way  inter- 
fering with  certain  blood-vessels. 

Whenever  possible,  we  should  sleep  alone,  and  not 
with  some  other  person  in  the  bed.  If  two  must  sleep 
in  the  same  room,  each  should  have  his  own  bed. 

Fresh  air  while  we  sleep. — It  is  fully  as  important 
that  we  should  have  plenty  of  fresh  air  when  we  are 
asleep  as  when  we  are  awake.  We  sleep  more  soundly 
and  rest  better  in  fresh  air.  We  should  have  the  win- 
dows of  our  sleeping  rooms  open  all  night,  either  in 
the  summer-time  or  in  the  winter.  When  it  is  very 
cold  we  should  put  extra  covering  on  the  bed,  but  not 
shut  out  the  air. 

Many  people  who  keep  their  windows  open  in  the 
summer,  close  them  tight  in  the  winter.  They  seem 
to  think  that  because  the  air  is  so  cold  it  is  certainly 


SLEEP,  REST  AND  DREAMS  133 

pure.  We  are  to  remember  that  air  becomes  impure 
when  it  is  cold  in  the  winter  just  as  when  it  is  hot  in 
the  summer. 

Sleeping  out-of-doors. — The  very  best  way  of 
all  is  to  sleep  out-of-doors  on  a  sleeping  porch,  where 
the  air  can  freely  enter  and  pass  over  our  beds  all 
night.  We  are  told  that  tuberculosis  was  practically 


Hoods  for  outdoor  sleeping 

unknown  in  the  world  until  people  began  to  live  in 
tightly  closed  houses.  Wise  physicians  who  treat 
patients  for  tuberculosis  have  them  sleep  out-of-doors 
in  this  way.  And  surely  if  this  is  good  for  sick  persons, 
it  is  equally  good  for  those  who  are  well. 

It  has  been  noticed  that  pneumonia  is  worse  in 
February  and  March  than  at  any  other  time  of  the 
year. 

This  is  not  because  these  months  are  really  worse 
than  any  other  months.  It  is  because  they  come  at 
the  end  of  the  winter,  when  many  people  who  have 


134  HYGIENE  AND  HEALTH 

slept  in  tightly  closed  bedrooms  all  winter  fall  easy 
prey  to  the  pneumonia  germs  after  their  strength  has 
been  lowered  by  sleeping  in  impure  air. 

Good  sleep  habits  to  form. — i.  Going  to  bed 
regularly  and  getting  up  regularly,  making  sure 
of  plenty  of  sleep. 

2.  Going  to  sleep  promptly  as  soon  as  we  get  to 
bed,   not  stopping   to   talk  with   any  one  who' 
may  sleep  with  us. 

3.  Getting  up  as  soon  as  we  waken  or  are  called, 
and  not  waiting  to  drowse  after  we  have  had 
sleep  enough. 

4.  Lying  in  a  comfortable,  straight  position  on  the 
side. 

5.  Sleeping  out-of-doors  if  possible;    if  not,   with 
open  windows  every  night  in  the  year. 

Health  Problems 

1.  Do  you  ever  have  bad  dreams,  or  nightmares?     Do  you 
have  trouble  to  get  to  sleep?     If  so,  can  you  discover  the 
cause:    Do  you  eat  food  for  supper  or  before  going  to  bed 
which  does  not  agree  with  you?     Do  you  read  exciting, 
blood-curdling  stories  in  the  evening?     Do  you  play  hard 
up  to  time  to  go  to  bed  ? 

2.  Josephine  objects  to  going  to  bed  at  the  proper  time  in  the 
evening  and  then  is  sleepy  and  tired  when  it  is  time  to  get 
up.    What  would  you  advise? 


CHAPTER  XXI 

THE   TEETH 

Whenever  one  laughs  or  smiles  or  talks  he  displays 
his  teeth  to  every  one  who  may  be  looking  at  him. 
No  part  of  the  face  is  more  attractive  than  a  set  of 
clean,  regular,  white  and  shiny  teeth. 

But,  on  the  other  hand,  nothing  is  much  more 
ugly  than  teeth  that  are  stained  and  slimy  with  de- 
cayed food,  or  that  are  crooked,  deformed,  or  decayed 
in  the  mouth. 

When  we  get  our  teeth. — The  baby  at  first  has 
no  teeth,  but  by  the  time  it  is  a  year  old  four  teeth 
have  appeared  in  front  in  the  upper  jaw  and  four  in 
the  lower  jaw.  So,  on  the  baby's  first  birthday  he 
should  have  eight  teeth. 

During  the  second  year  three  more  come  immedi- 
ately back  of  these  first  ones  on  each  side  of  the  jaw. 
This  adds  six  teeth  for  each  jaw,  or  twelve  in  all  during 
the  second  year.  These,  with  the  eight  that  grew  in 
the  first  year,  make  twenty  teeth  that  the  child  should 
have  when  it  is  two  years  old. 

These  twenty  teeth  are  called  milk  teeth,  since  they 
appear  while  the  child  is  so  young  that  its  food  is  still 

10  135 


136 


HYGIENE  AND  HEALTH 


chiefly  of  milk.  The  twenty  milk  teeth  are  all  lost 
between  the  age  of  seven  and  ten  years.  They  become 
loose  and  are  pushed  out  by  the  new  second,  or  per- 
manent, teeth  which  are  growing  in  to  take  their  place. 

The  first  permanent  teeth.  —  At  the  age  of  about 
six   years   the    first   of   the   permanent   teeth   appear. 

These    are    known    as 


comes  in  on  each  side 
of  the  jaw  just  back 
of  the  last  milk  tooth. 
There  are  four  sixth 
year  molars  in  all,  two 
in  each  jaw. 

If  you  will  look  in 
the  mirror  you  can 
easily  see  these  first 
molars.  Start  with  the 
first  tooth  to  the  right 
or  the  left  side  of  the 
middle,  and  count  around  to  the  sixth  tooth.  This  is 
the  first  of  your  permanent  teeth,  and  is  the  sixth 
year  molar.  This  tooth  is  numbered  6  in  the  picture. 
Let  us  stop  now  and  count  up  how  many  teeth  one 
should  have  at  the  age  of  eleven  years.  First  of  all 
there  are  the  twenty  permanent  teeth  which  have 
taken  the  place  of  the  twenty  milk  teeth  at  different 


A  drawing  of  the  teeth  of  the  right  half  of 
the  jaw.  Those  numbered  from  1-5  are 
the  milk  teeth;  they  become  loose  and 
are  pushed  out  by  permanent  teeth  which 
come  to  take  their  place.  Those  num- 
bered 6  are  the  first  permanent  teeth  to 
appear 


THE  TEETH  137 

times  between  the  ages  of  seven  and  ten  years.  Then 
there  are  the  four  sixth  year  molars,  the  very  first  of 
one's  permanent  teeth.  This  makes  twenty- four. 

A  complete  set  of  teeth. — Every  boy  and  girl  at 
the  age  of  eleven  ought,  therefore,  to  have  twenty-four 
straight,  sound,  white  teeth.  Four  additional  molars 
will  come  in  during  the  next  year  or  two  (number  7 
in  the  picture),  making  twenty-eight  altogether.  And 
finally,  probably  sometime  between  the  age  of  seven- 
teen and  twenty  years,  four  more  molars,  called 
wisdom  teeth,  appear.  This  makes  the  complete  set 
of  thirty-two  teeth. 

Yesterday  as  I  was  going  down  town  on  the  car  I 
sat  beside  a  pretty  schoolgirl  friend,  who  told  me  she 
was  on  her  way  to  the  dentist.  She  is  very  much  con- 
cerned because  her  teeth  are  so  crooked  that  they 
altogether  spoil  the  appearance  of  her  mouth.  She 
is  having  the  dentist  try  to  straighten  them  for  her. 

Why  some  teeth  come  in  crooked. — This  girl 
told  me  the  way  her  teeth  happened  to  grow  crooked. 
When  her  second  teeth  were  coming  in,  the  milk  teeth 
did  not  become  loose  and  come  out  properly.  She 
neglected  to  have  the  dentist  look  after  them,  and  some 
of  the  second  teeth  grew  out  of  the  side  of  the  gum 
instead  of  coming  in  where  the  first  tooth  had  been. 
The  dentist  can  help  her  even  now,  but  it  would  have 
been  much  better  had  she  gone  to  him  when  her  per- 
manent teeth  were  coming  in. 


138  HYGIENE  AND  HEALTH 

Not  only  do  crooked  teeth  look  unsightly,  but  they 
do  not  fit  together  right  when  we  chew.  In  this  way 
they  make  it  impossible  to  cut  and  grind  the  food 
properly.  This  results  in  food  being  swallowed  without 
good  mastication,  and  the  stomach  has  much  harder 
work  to  digest  it. 

Protecting  teeth  from  decay. — The  greatest 
enemy  of  our  teeth  is  decay.  School  physicians  tell  us 
that  at  least  nine  school  children  out  of  every  ten  have 
one  or  more  teeth  with  cavities  in  them  caused  by 
decay.  When  we  remember  that  the  teeth  we  have 
at  eleven  or  twelve  years  must  last  us  all  through  our 
lives,  we  see  how  important  it  is  that  we  shall  keep 
them  sound. 

Injury  from  decayed  teeth. — Decayed  teeth  are 
certain  to  attack  the  health  of  the  entire  body.  There 
are  four  different  ways  in  which  decayed  teeth  injure 
us. 

1.  They    make    it    impossible    to    chew    the    food 
properly.      Food  which  is  not  well  chewed  not 
only  goes   to   the   stomach    in  chunks  that  are 
too  large,  but  it  fails  to  be  properly  mixed  with 
the  saliva  in  the  mouth. 

2.  The  cavity  of  a  decayed  tooth  discharges  poisons 
into  the  mouth.    These  are  swallowed  and  taken 
up    by    the    blood    and    carried    all    over    the 
body. 


THE  TEETH  139 

3.  Besides    these    poisons,    decaying    teeth    cause 
toothache.     Sound   teeth   never  ache. 

4.  Every  cavity  in  a  tooth  is  filled  with  a  mixture 
of    decayed    food    and    microbes.      More    than 
'loo  different  kinds  of  microbes  have  been  found 
in  the  mouth.    Many  of  these  are  the  germs  of 
serious  diseases  like  tuberculosis  and  diphtheria. 

We  will  see  in  the  next  lesson  how  to  keep  our 
teeth  from  decaying. 

Interesting  things  to  do. — i.  Learn  from  the 
drawing  on  page  136  the  four  different  names 
that  apply  to  your  teeth. 

2.  Point  to  each  tooth  in  the  right  or  left  half  of 
either  jaw  and  as  you  point  to  it   give   it   its 
name. 

3.  After   learning   the   age    at  which   the  different 
teeth  usually  come  in,  point  again   to   each   of 
your  different  teeth  and  tell  the  age  at  which 
this  tooth  usually  appears. 

4.  Report  whether  you  have  ever  had  the  tooth- 
ache, whether   you    have   been   to   the  dentist, 
and  how  many,  if  any,  teeth  you  have  had  filled. 

5.  Examine    your    teeth    carefully    after    cleaning 
them  to  see  whether  you  can  find  any  cavities. 
Use  a  toothpick  to  explore  around   the   teeth. 

6.  Play  you  are  a  dentist:    First  scrub  your  hands 
very  clean,  then  examine  the  teeth  of  a  classmate 
and  give  directions  for  caring  for  the  teeth. 


CHAPTER  XXII 

HOW  TO   HAVE   GOOD  TEETH 

A  doctor  who  had  examined  the  mouths  of  a  large 
number  of  school  children  kept  a  record  of  the  troubles 
he  found  with  their  teeth.  He  says: 

"The  average  school  child  has  twenty-four  teeth; 
eight  of  them  are  diseased;  sixteen  of  them  are  dis- 
colored with  unsightly  accumulation  of  foods  and 
deposits,  or  else  he  has  some  noticeable  malformation 
interfering  with  mastication.  Three  of  the  four  sixth 
year  molars  are  seriously  affected,  or  else  one  is  already 
lost  and  another  decayed.  He  has  had  toothache  more 
or  less  during  the  past  year.  He  has  never  put  a  tooth- 
brush to  his  teeth  and  has  never  seen  the  inside  of  a 
dentist's  office." 

Learning  to  care  for  our  teeth. — This  description, 
severe  as  it  is,  is  true  of  about  one-half  of  the  children 
in  the  schools.  Most  of  this  trouble  can  be  saved  by 
keeping  our  teeth  strong  by  eating  coarse  food  and  by 
forming  right  habits  of  caring  for  them  when  we  are 
young. 

The  cause  of  most  of  our  tooth  troubles  is  decay. 
Decay,  as  we  have  already  learned,  is  caused  by 

140 


HOW  TO  HAVE  GOOD  TEETH 


141 


microbes.     If  we  keep  our  mouths  free  from  microbes, 
then  our  teeth  will  be  safe  from  decay. 

Microbes  are  attracted  to  our  mouths  by  the  par- 
ticles of  food  that  remain  sticking  to  our  teeth.  Clean 
mouths  mean  fewer  microbes.  If  we  clean  our  teeth 


My  mother  taught   me  to   use 
a  tooth-brush 


I    wish    mine    had 


thoroughly  two  or  three  times  a  day,  we  will  get  rid 
of  most  of  the  microbes  that  cause  our  teeth  to  decay. 
There  is  no  other  way  to  have  good  teeth. 

The  tooth-brush  habit.— The  first  thing  to  do  if 
we  would  have  clean  teeth  is  to  get  a  tooth-brush.  The 
next  thing  to  do  is  to  use  the  tooth-brush  faithfully! 
For  not  everybody  who  owns  a  tooth-brush  uses  it 
regularly. 


142  HYGIENE  AND  HEALTH 

Our  tooth-brush  should  have  bristles  stiff  enough 
so  they  will  push  well  into  the  angles  of  the  teeth. 
The  bristles  should  not  be  so  stiff,  however,  as  to  hurt 
the  gums.  The  bristles  should  not  be  set  too  close 
together,  for  this  will  keep  them  from  going  in  between 
the  teeth. 

Besides  a  good  tooth-brush,  we  need  a  tooth  paste 
or  powder.  This  is  to  help  dissolve  and  cut  the  slime 
from  the  teeth.  The  paste  or  powder  should  be  used 
each  morning,  and  may  be  used  also  in  the  evening. 
It  is  well  also  to  brush  the  teeth  with  clear  water  after 
the  noon  meal,  but  they  should  always  be  brushed  at 
least  morning  and  evening.  If  our  teeth  are  cleaned 
thoroughly  this  often,  the  microbes  will  not  have  a 
chance  to  stay  long  enough  in  our  mouths  to  cause 
decay. 

How  to  use  a  tooth-brush. — Not  everybody 
knows  how  to  use  a  tooth-brush.  I  watched  my 
nephew  brush  his  teeth  this  morning,  and  he  just 
rubbed  the  brush  back  and  forth  over  them.  This 
did  not  get  the  bristles  into  the  corners  between  the 
teeth.  Besides  brushing  back  and  forth,  he  needs  to 
give  the  brush  a  twisting  movement,  or  else  work  the 
brush  downward  for  the  upper  teeth  and  upward  for 
the  lower  teeth.  In  this  way  the  bristles  get  into  every 
crack  and  corner. 

Teeth  nearly  always  begin  to  decay  at  their  inner 
edge  where  they  touch  each  other.  This  is  because 


HOW  TO  HAVE  GOOD  TEETH 


143 


the  food  particles  are 
not  removed  from  be- 
tween the  teeth,  and 
when  the  food  begins 
to  decay  it  also  starts 
the  tooth  to  decay. 

Cleaning  between 
the  teeth. — To  over- 
come this  difficulty,  one 
must  clean  between  the 
teeth.  This  can  be  done 
by  drawing  a  piece  of 
thread  between  all  the 
teeth  that  are  far 
enough  apart  for  the 
thread  to  go  between 
them.  A  special  silk 
thread  called  silk  floss 
is  made  for  this  use.  It 
should  be  used  each 
night  when  we  are  get- 
ting ready  for  bed. 

No  matter  how  well 
we  care  for  our  teeth, 
we  should  call  on  the 

dentist  at  least  twice  a  year  and  let  him  look  them 
over.  It  is  possible  that  some  little  place  has  started 
to  decay  and  needs  immediate  attention.  If  the  den- 


A  tooth-brush  with  tufts  of  bristles  of 
slightly  different  lengths  is  better  than 
one  with  bristles  all  the  same  length; 
this  is  because  the  longer  bristles  can 
then  reach  in  between  the  teeth  better 


144  HYGIENE  AND  HEALTH 

tist  discovers  the  decaying  place  in  time,  it  will  cause 
no  pain  to  fix  it,  and  the  tooth  may  be  made  almost  as 
good  as  ever. 

Going  to  see  the  dentist. — When  a  tooth  has 
decayed  so  much  that  it  begins  to  ache,  it  can  then 
never  be  made  as  good  again  as  if  it  had  been  looked 
after  in  time.  An  aching  tooth  means  that  the  cavity 
has  got  down  near  to  a  nerve,  and  that  there  will  be 
some  pain  in  cleaning  the  hole  out  and  filling  it.  But 
every  brave  boy  and  girl  will  be  willing  to  stand  a  little 
pain  in  order  to  have  their  teeth  made  good. 

Danger  of  breaking  the  teeth. — I  saw  a  boy 
doing  a  very  foolish  thing  the  other  day.  He  was 
cracking  hazel-nuts  with  his  teeth.  He  probably  did 
not  know  that  the  outer  part  of  the  tooth,  which  is 
called  the  enamel,  is  very  hard  and  brittle.  Because 
it  is  so  hard  the  enamel  is  easily  cracked  or  chipped 
by  biting  upon  hard  substances. 

When  the  enamel  has  been  broken  or  chipped  in  any 
way,  the  tooth  will  decay  very  much  more  easily  and 
quickly.  It  is  like  the  apple  or  potato  with  the  skin 
broken  through — the  microbes  find  a  good  place  for 
lodgment  and  immediately  begin  their  work. 

Good  habits  to  form. — i.  Having  as  much  pride 
in  clean,  attractive  teeth  as  we  have  in  good 
clothes,  or  clean  hands  and  face.  This  means 
that  we  should  be  ashamed  of  dirty,  discolored 
teeth,  or  of  teeth  that  have  cavities  in  them. 


HOW  TO  HAVE  GOOD  TEETH  145 

2.  Being  so  faithful  in  the  use  of  our  tooth-brush 
each    night    and    morning    that    we  would    no 
more  think  of  going  without  brushing  our  teeth 
than  we  would  of   going  without  our  breakfast 
or  supper. 

3.  Making  a  visit  to  the  dentist  at  a  certain  time 
each   year.      This    might   be    on   our   birthday 
and  half  way  in  between. 

Interesting  things  to  do. — i.  Show  how  to  brush 
the  teeth  with  a  back  and  forth,  up  and  down 
and  twisting  motion  so  as  to  get  the  brush  into 
every  crevice  between  the  teeth. 

2.  Show  how  to  pass  a  silk  thread  in  between  the 
teeth  to  remove  all  particles  of  food. 

3.  Show  how  to  apply  tooth  paste  or  powder  to 
the  brush  without  waste. 

Health  Problems 

1.  Many  persons  who  own  a  tooth-brush  do  not  use  it  regu- 
larly.    How  many  times  have  you  brushed  your  teeth  in 
the  last  week? 

2.  Unless  a  tooth-brush  is  well  washed  out  after  it  has  been 
used,  it  becomes  very  dirty  and  not  fit  to  put  into  one's 
mouth.    Tell  how  you  clean  your  brush. 

3.  When  did  you  have  toothache  last?    What  caused  it?    When 
did  you  last  go  to  the  dentist?    When  should  you  go  again? 


CHAPTER  XXIII 

CARE   OF   THE   HAIR 

Hair  grows  on  nearly  all  parts  of  the  body.  It  is 
longest  and  thickest,  however,  on  the  head,  where  it 
serves  for  protection  and  adds  much  to  one's  appear- 
ance. 

Hair,  bulb,  gland. — Each  separate  hair  grows  from 
its  own  tiny  bulb  or  root  which  is  imbedded  in  the 
skin.  Pull  a  hair  from  your  head  and  draw  it  through 
between  your  finger  and  thumb.  Do  you  feel  the  small 
bulb  at  the  end?  Every  hair  also  has  its  own  little  oil 
gland  and  sometimes  two  of  them,  which  open  directly 
against  the  root  of  the  hair.  This  oiling  system  sup- 
plies all  the  oil  the  hair  needs  and  will  keep  it  soft 
and  glossy  if  the  skin  from  which  the  hair  grows  is 
properly  cared  for. 

Our  hair  shows  the  kind  of  care  it  gets. — The 

other  day  I  sat  beside  a  boy  in  the  street-car  who  would 
have  had  a  fine  head  of  hair,  except  that  something 
was  the  matter  with  it.  His  coat  collar  was  covered 
with  little  whitish  flakes  of  dandruff  and  loose  hairs 
that  had  fallen  off  of  his  head. 

14-6 


CARE  OF  THE  HAIR 


147 


Hair 


When  this  boy  raised  his  cap  to  his  teacher,  who 
came  into  the  car,  I  noticed  that  his  scalp  looked 
rough  and  scaly  where  his  hair  was  parted.  He  also 
scratched  and  rubbed  his  head  now  and  then  as  if  it 
was  itching  or  felt  un- 
comfortable. 

Now  I  think  I  know 
what  was  the  matter 
with  this  boy's  head. 
I  think  he  did  not 
take  good  care  of  his 
hair.  Perhaps  he  had 
not  formed  the  habit 
of  brushing  it  and 
washing  it  as  often  as 
he  should. 


-Oil  Gland 


'-Hair/foot 


0 


A  hair,  with  its  bulb  or  root,  and  an  oil 
gland 


What  dandruff  is. 

— Did  you  ever  think 

what  dandruff  really  is? 

Secure  a  few  pieces  of 

dandruff     from      your 

hair.      Examine    them 

carefully  through   the  magnifying-glass    if    you    have 

one.     If  not,  your  eyes  will  do.     You  will  find  that 

the  little  dandruff  flakes  are  nothing  but  particles  of 

the  epidermis  that  scale  off  from  the  scalp. 

We  have  already  learned  that  the  epidermis  is  con- 
stantly wearing  off.     Particles  of  it  loosen  and  scale 


T  148  HYGIENE  AND  HEALTH 

i 

off  on  all  parts  of  the  body.  You  can  sometimes  notice 
the  whitish  particles  in  your  stockings  if  you  have  worn 
them  several  days.  When  the  flakes  scale  off  on  the 
scalp  they  lodge  in  the  hair.  They  are  just  like  the 
flakes  that  scale  off  on  other  parts  of  the  body. 

Removing  dandruff. — It  is  perfectly  natural  that 
everybody  should  have  some  dandruff  gather  in  his 
hair.  The  trouble  is  that  some  have  too  much.  If  the 
head  is  kept  clean  and  healthy  by  frequent  washing, 
and  the  hair  is  brushed  well  every  day,  one  will  have  no 
trouble  with  dandruff.  It  will  be  removed  as  fast  as 
it  forms,  and  will  not  be  noticeable.  The  oil  from  the 
glands  at  the  roots  of  the  hair  gradually  works  out  to 
the  surface  of  the  scalp.  This  oily  substance  is  some- 
what sticky  and  mixed  with  the  dandruff  forms  into  a 
kind  of  pasty  coating.  When  this  dries  it  sticks  to  the 
scalp  and  finally  peals  off  in  scales. 

When  this  sticky  mass  clings  to  the  scalp,  it  irritates 
the  skin  and  makes  it  feel  dry  and  itchy.  This  condi- 
tion is  bad  for  the  roots  of  the  hair  and  causes  it  to 
loosen  and  fall  out.  Failure  to  take  care  of  one's 
hair  is  a  frequent  cause  of  baldness. 

Washing  the  hair. — In  order  to  keep  the  scalp  and 
hair  clean  the  head  should  be  washed  about  once  a 
week;  twice  a  week  is  better  if  we  play  or  work  in  the 
dust  or  dirt.  A  mild  soap  should  be  used  with  plenty 
of  warm,  soft  water.  It  is  safer  not  to  use  the  pre- 
pared shampoo  mixtures,  for  the  doctors  tell  us  that 


CARE  OF  THE  HAIR  149 

many  of  them  are  bad  for  the  scalp.  After  the  washing 
is  finished,  the  soap  should  be  thoroughly  rinsed  out  of 
the  hair.  The  hair  should  then  be  dried  carefully  be- 
fore we  expose  ourselves  to  draft  or  the  cold. 

In  order  to  keep  the  hair  in  good  condition  it  should 
be  thoroughly  brushed  every  day.  Brushing  starts  the 
oil  to  flowing  from  the  roots  of  the  hair,  and  gives  the 
hair  a  glossy,  healthy  appearance.  It  is  well  to  massage 
the  scalp  with  the  finger-tips  or  even  to  pinch  it  lightly 
over  the  entire  surface  once  or  twice  a  day  if  we  find 
the  hair  becoming  dry.  This  will  not  only  cause  the 
oil  to  come  out  upon  the  hair,  but  will  bring  more 
blood  to  the  surface  and  cause  the  hair  to  grow  better. 

Insects  that  get  into  the  hair. — Those  who  do 
not  live  in  very  clean  homes  or  who  fail  to  keep  their 
heads  clean  are  sometimes  troubled  with  small  head 
lice.  The  worst  of  it  is  that  these  lice  can  travel  about 
enough  to  get  into  the  hair  of  perfectly  clean  people. 
They  may  also  be  caught  from  wearing  the  hats  or 
caps  of  those  who  have  lice  on  their  heads.  It  is 
unsafe  even  to  hang  one's  hat  or  wraps  near  those  of 
a  person  who  has  lice. 

Clean,  well-combed,  healthy  looking  hair  is  one  of 
the  greatest  attractions  we  can  have.  On-  the  other 
hand,  hair  that  is  greasy,  dirty,  or  which  has  a  bad 
smell  is  never  attractive,  to  say  the  least.  One's  per- 
sonal habits  and  cleanliness  are  constantly  judged  by 
the  appearance  of  his  hair. 


ISO  HYGIENE  AND  HEALTH 

Bad  habits  to  avoid  about  the  hair. — i.  Some 
boys  allow  their  hair  to  become  rough,  tousled, 
and  unruly  from  lack  of  proper  brushing.  This 
shows  them  to  be  careless  about  their  person 
and  not  to  have  very  good  taste. 

2.  Girls  sometimes  let  their  hair  become  greasy, 
stringy   and    snarly  because   they  do  not   take 
time  to  wash  it.    No  one  whose  hair  is  in  this 
condition  is  very  attractive. 

3.  Some  persons  form  the  habit  of  scratching  the 
head.    If  the  head  itches,  the  scalp  either  needs 
better  care  and  attention,  or  else  head  lice  are 
troubling.     In  either  case,  the  difficulty  should 
be    remedied    and   we    should    not    attract   un- 
favorable attention  to  ourselves. 

4.  Putting  oil  on  the  hair.    Nature  supplies  enough 
oil  from  the  roots  of  the  hairs  if  we  take  good 
care   of   the   hair.      Oil    put   on   the   hair   only 
makes  it  gummy  and  sticky. 

Hair  habits  that  will  make  one  ready  for  "in- 
spection,"— I.  Washing  the  hair  thoroughly 
with  soap  and  warm  water  twice  a  week.  It  is 
well  to  have  certain  days  for  this  in  order  that  it 
may  not  be  forgotten. 

2.  Having  one's  own  comb  and  brush  and  then 
neither  borrowing  nor  lending.  Especially  ought 
one  not  to  use  combs  and  brushes  found  in 
hotels,  railway  wash-rooms  or  other  public  places. 


CARE  OF  THE  HAIR  151 

.  Brushing  the  hair  vigorously  each  night  and 
morning  and  massaging  the  scalp  once  each  day. 

.  For  boys  to  form  the  habit  of  keeping  their  hair 
clipped  often  enough  so  that  it  does  not  grow 
to  look  ragged  and  too  long.  For  girls  to  have 
their  hair  always  neatly  fastened  in  some  attrac- 
tive way. 

Health  Problems 

When  Mary  got  home  from  school  last  night  she  told  her 
mother  she  didn't  like  to  sit  next  to  Henry  in  class,  because 
he  was  always  scratching  his  head  and  it  made  her  *  'creepy." 
What  different  causes  might  lead  Henry  to  make  himself 
unpleasant  by  scratching  his  head? 

Dick  wets  his  hair  every  time  he  combs  it  to  make  it  "lie 
down"  better.  His  mother  tells  him  that  wetting  his  hair 
so  much  only  makes  it  more  stiff  and  unruly,  and  that  what 
he  ought  to  do  is  to  wash  his  head  thoroughly  twice  a  week 
and  then  brush  his  hair  instead  of  wetting  it.  Do  you 
think  she  is  right  about  it? 

Can  you  by  looking  around  the  school-room,  pick  out  the 
girls  and  boys  who  take  good  care  of  their  hair,  and  the 
ones  who  neglect  their  hair? 

Make  a  list  of  six  good  "hair  habits."  How  many  of  these 
habits  have  you  formed? 


11 


CHAPTER  XXIV 

KEEPING   THE    NAILS    IN    ORDER 

Our  finger-nails  have  three  chief  uses.  They  pro- 
tect the  ends  of  the  fingers ;  they  aid  in  picking  up  and 
holding  small  objects;  and  they  add  to  the  appearance 
of  the  fingers. 

The  nails,  like  the  hair,  are  a  part  of  the  epidermis, 
or  scarf  skin,  and  therefore  do  not  hurt  nor  bleed  when 
we  cut  them.  They  grow  from  the  root  end,  and  no 
matter  how  they  may  be  torn,  bruised  or  injured,  they 
will  grow  out  again  if  the  root  has  not  suffered  injury. 

Certain  fashionable  people  in  India  and  China  allow 
their  finger-nails  to  grow  out  very  long,  sometimes  as 
much  as  several  inches.  The  nails  are  then  kept  care- 
fully trimmed,  polished,  and  even  painted.  Of  course 
such  long  nails  are  in  the  way  and  their  owner  can  not 
work,  for  the  nails  would  be  broken  off.  In  fact  a 
metal  cap  like  a  thimble  is  often  worn  over  these  long 
nails  to  keep  them  from  breaking.  We  would  think 
that  such  nails  looked  too  much  like  claws  and  would 
not  want  them. 

How  to  trim  the  nails. — Good  taste  and  conve- 
nience both  require  that  our  nails  shall  be  kept  care- 

152 


KEEPING  THE  NAILS  IN  ORDER 


153 


fully  trimmed.  They  should  be  left  just  long  enough 
to  project  the  least  bit  beyond  the  tip  of  the  finger. 
Some  trim  their  nails  to  a  pointed  shape,  but  this 
makes  them  more  liable  to  break.  The  best  way  is  to 
trim  the  nails  in  a  curve  to  match  the  oval  tips  of  the 
finger. 

Sometimes  the  skin  clings  at  the  root  of  the  nail 
as  it  grows  out.  This 
stretches  the  skin  until 
it  breaks,  and  frag- 
ments of  it  peel  back. 
The  breaking  and  peel- 
ing of  the  skin  causes 
what  we  call  hang- 
nails. Hang-nails  not 
only  become  very  sore, 

...  ,  The  one  nail  shows  a  rough  and  jagged 

DUt      also      injure      the      edge  where  it  has  been  broken  or  nibbled; 
looks     of      the     fingers.       t^e  other  shows  careful  care  and  trim- 
ming.    Which   would   you   rather   have? 

Curing  hang -nails. 

— Hang-nails  will  not  form  if  the  skin  is  not  allowed 
to  grow  fast  at  the  root  of  the  nails.  This  can  be 
prevented  by  pushing  with  the  thumb  against  the 
skin  at  the  back  of  the  nail  whenever  the  hands  are 
washed.  A  soft  wooden  instrument  may  be  used  to 
push  the  skin  back.  The  nails  should  never  be 
scraped  or  scratched  with  any  hard  instrument, 
for  this  will  only  cause  them  to  grow  thick  and 
unshapely. 


154  HYGIENE  AND  HEALTH 

One  of  the  chief  points  in  caring  for  the  nails  is  to 
keep  the  dirt  cleared  from  under  their  tips.  The 
cleaning  should  never  be  done  with  a  knife,  scissors  or 
any  sharp  instrument  which  may  scratch  and  make 
the  nail  rough  underneath.  For  this  only  makes  a 
lodging  place  for  the  dirt  and  causes  it  to  stick  all 
the  more  readily. 

Cleaning  the  nails. — The  best  instrument  for 
cleaning  under  the  finger-nails  is  a  soft  bit  of  wood 
sharpened  just  enough  to  go  under  the  nails  readily. 
Small  wooden  nail  cleaners  are  sold  in  the  shops  for 
about  one  cent  each,  but  one  can  easily  make  such 
an  instrument  for  one's  self. 

If  one's  hands  have  become  very  much  soiled,  or 
the  dirt  has  become  caked  under  the  nails  or  around 
their  edges,  it  may  be  necessary  to  use  a  stiff  brush 
in  order  to  clean  them  well. 

But  whatever  method  we  use,  we  should  at  least 
keep  our  nails  clean.  A  black  line  under  our  nails  is 
sure  to  tell  tales  on  us,  and  let  everybody  know  that 
we  have  not  formed  good  habits  of  caring  for  our 
hands. 

The  dirt  that  lodges  under  the  finger-nails  also  con- 
tains many  different  kinds  of  microbes.  Some  of  these 
may  bring  us  disease  if  they  get  into  our  mouths  or 
on  our  food  as  we  eat. 

Accidents  to  the  nails. — A  young  friend  who 
lives  neighbor  to  me  recently  made  a  mistake  and 


KEEPING  THE  NAILS  IN  ORDER  155 

struck  his  finger-nail  in  place  of  the  nail  he  was  driving 
into  a  board.  Joe's  finger-nail  turned  black  and  gave 
him  a  great  deal  of  pain.  He  said  it  throbbed  so 
that  he  could  feel  his  heart  beat  in  it. 

The  dark  appearance  of  the  nail  was  caused  by  the 
blood  which  flowed  out  from  the  small  vessels  which 
had  been  broken  underneath  the  nail  by  the  blow  of 
the  hammer.  The  throbbing  was  caused  by  the  blood 
which  was  driven  by  his  heart-beat  against  the  torn 
and  bruised  nerves. 

Joe's  finger  hurt  him  so  that  his  mother  took  him 
to  the  doctor.  The  doctor  bored  a  little  hole  through 
the  nail  and  let  the  blood  out.  This  relieved  the  pain. 
The  doctor  told  Joe  that  if  the  blood  was  not  let  out 
it  would  harden  underneath  the  nail  and  interfere  with 
the  growth  of  the  new  nail  which  Joe  will  have  in 
place  of  the  old  one. 

Caring  for  the  toe-nails. — Toe-nails  need  as  much 
care  as  finger-nails  in  order  to  keep  them  in  good 
condition.  Every  time  a  bath  is  taken,  the  toe-nails 
should  be  cleaned  under  the  tips  and  around  the  edges, 
and  care  should  be  given  to  see  that  they  are  not  be- 
coming too  long. 

Instead  of  cutting  toe-nails  in  a  circular  form  as  is 
the  case  with  finger-nails,  they  should  be  trimmed 
nearly  square  across.  This  is  to  keep  them  from 
growing  under  at  the  edges  and  causing  ingrowing 
toe-nails. 


156 


HYGIENE  AND  HEALTH 


Instruments  for  use  on  the  nails. — The  best 
way  to  trim  nails  is  with  a  small  pair  of  scissors  or  with 
a  nail  file.  The  file  will  do  a  better  job  than  the 
scissors.  A  knife  is  not  a  proper  instrument  for  trim- 
ming the  nails,  as  we 
can  not  trim  them  with 
it  in  so  true  a  shape, 
and  there  is  always 
some  danger  of  cutting 
where  we  do  not  intend 
to  with  the  knife  blade. 


Habits  to  avoid  in 
caring  for  the 
nails. — I.  Biting 
or  nibbling  the 
nails.  This  bad 
habit  is  not  only 
disgusting  to 
others,  but  it  is 
also  unsafe  to  take 
into  one's  mouth 
the  microbes  that 
lodge  in  the  dirt 

under  the  nail  tips. 

Trimming  the  nails  by  pulling  the  tips  off  with 

the  fingers.    This  leaves  them  rough  and  jagged 

and  finally  spoils  their  shape. 

Scraping  or  filing  the  back  of  the  nail.     This 


These  three  instruments,  scissors,  file, 
and  a  soft  piece  of  wood  sharpened  to  a 
dull  point,  cost  but  a  few  cents,  and  each 
member  of  the  family  should  have  his 
own  set 


KEEPING  THE  NAILS  IN  ORDER  157 

always  causes  the  nail  to  grow  thick  and  heavy 
and  leaves  the  surface  uneven. 

4.  Allowing  dark  lines  of  dirt  to  gather  under  the 
tips  or  around  the  edges  of  the  nails. 

Desirable  nail  habits  to  form. — i.  Keeping  the 
nails  so  carefully  filed  or  trimmed  that  they  are 
always  ready  for  "inspection/* 

2.  Using  a  soft  wooden  instrument  each  time  we 
wash  our  hands  to  clean  underneath  and  around 
the  edges  of  the  nails. 

3.  Pushing  the  skin  back  at  the  roots  of  the  nails 
in  the  morning  so  that  the  little  white  crescent 
at  the  back  will  show  clearly. 

4.  Taking  as  good  care  of  our  toe-nails  as  of  our 
finger-nails. 

Interesting  things  to  do. — i.  Show  how  to 
shape  a  piece  of  soft  pine  to  make  an  instrument 
for  cleaning  under  the  nails. 

2.  Show  how  to  push  the  skin  back  on  the  crescent 
of  the  nail  to  prevent  hang-nails. 

3.  Show  how  to  trim  the  finger-nails  properly  with 
small  scissors. 

4.  Show  how  to  trim  the  nails  with  a  nail  file. 

5.  Show  how  to  trim  the  toe-nails  to  prevent  in- 
growing nails. 


CHAPTER  XXV 

HOW   TO   HAVE   GOOD   EYES 

Which  do  you  think  would  be  the  most  dreadful 
loss  to  one,  to  lose  his  sight,  his  hearing,  his  taste,  or 
his  smell? 

I  asked  this  question  the  other  day  of  a  group  of 
boys  and  girls.  They  were  to  write  down  the  answer 
on  a  piece  of  paper.  When  the  slips  of  paper  were 
collected,  they  all  had  the  word  ' 'sight"  written  on 
them.  I  think  the  boys  and  girls  were  right  about  it. 
I  can  not  imagine  anything  more  dreadful  than  to  be 
without  ^sight.  While  the  eye  is  well  protected  by 
being  set  back  in  a  bony  pocket,  yet  it  is  a  very  deli- 
cate organ  and  is  easily  injured.  The  eye  may  be 
injured  by  accidents,  by  diseases,  or  by  improper  use. 

Guarding  the  eyes  against  accident. — John 
Lothrop  Motley,  the  writer  of  histories,  was  made 
blind  by  a  comrade  throwing  a  bread-crust  which 
struck  him  in  one  eye.  The  other  eye  became  dis- 
eased by  the  inflammation  and  also  lost  its  sight. 

Two  boys  whom  I  know  were  playing  together  and 
one  chased  the  other  under  the  low  hanging  limbs  of 
a  tree.  The  one  who  was  ahead  caught  a  small  branch 

158 


HOW  TO  HAVE  GOOD  EYES 


159 


with  his  hand  and  then  let  go  of  it.  When  the  branch 
flew  back  a  small  twig  struck  the  other  boy  in  the 
eye  and  cut  through  the  outer  coating.  This  let  out 
the  liquid  that  fills  the  front  of  the  eye,  and  made  the 
eye  blind.  It  had  to  be  removed  by  the  doctor,  and 
my  friend  to-day  wears 
a  glass  eye  in  place  of 
his  own. 

Many  accidents  hap« 
pen  every  year  on  the 
Fourth  of  July  from 
the  explosion  of  fire- 
crackers, toy  pistols 
and  the  like,  which 
cause  the  loss  of  eye- 
sight. One  can  not  be 
too  careful  in  guarding 

his     eyes     against      ac-      ^^e  wronS  waY  to  s^  when  reading.    The 
...  ,        ,  light  should  not  strike  the  eye,  but  fall 

cident,  nor  can  he  be     from  behind  or  from  the  side  on  the  page 

too  careful  not  to  in- 

jure the  eyes  of  another  person. 

Danger  of  overworking  the  eyes.  —  The  eye  is  one 

of  the  hardest  worked  organs  of  the  body.  Our  eyes 
were  originally  intended  for  out-of-door  vision  rather 
than  for  reading  books.  It  is  only  a  few  hundred  years 
since  men  have  begun  to  read  books  in  any  numbers. 
In  five  minutes  of  reading  on  this  page  your  eye  makes 
about  one  thousand  separate  movements  and  focuses 


160  HYGIENE  AND  HEALTH 

as  many  times  with  rifle  aim  precision  upon  the  letters 
that  you  read. 

Five  minutes  of  such  reading  probably  requires  as 
much  work  of  the  eye  as  the  energy  expended  in  a 
whole  day  of  distant  seeing  out-of-doors. 

Rules  for  caring  for  the  eyes. — If  our  eyes  are  to 
stand  this  hard  work,  we  must  give  them  the  best  of 
care.  Some  simple  rules  which  we  all  need  to  follow 
are  these: 

1.  We    should    not    read    while    facing    the    light. 
Direct  light  tires  the  eye  and  weakens  it.     The 
best  reading  light  comes  from  the  side  or  over 
the  shoulder,  so  that  it  falls  on  the  page  without 
any  shadows.    Good  lighting  from  overhead  may 
also   be    had.      We   should    never   sit   facing   a 
window  nor  reading  lamp.    Nor  should  we  have 
strong    electric    lamps    in    our    rooms    without 
shades  covering  them. 

2.  We  should  not  read  in  light  that  is  too  dim,  for 
this   strains   the  eyes  unnecessarily.     The  light 
is  too  dim  whenever  we  find  it  hard  to  see  the 
print.  We  are  sometimes  careless  when  reading  in 
the  twilight  as  the  light  grows  faint,  and  continue 
until  it  is  far  darker  than  is  good  for  the  eyes. 

3.  We  should  not  read  from  blackboards  that  are 
shiny,  so  that  they  reflect  the  light  into  our  eyes. 
Nor  should  we  read  from  the  blackboard  when  we 
are  so  far  away  that  it  is  hard  to  read  the  letters. 


HOW  TO  HAVE  GOOD  EYES  l6l 

4.  The  books  we  use  should  not  have  a  very  fine 
print.     Trying  to  focus  upon  objects   that   are 
too  small  gives  the  eye  extra  work  and  strain. 

5.  It  is  easy  to  form  the  habit  of  reading  with  the 
page  too  near  the  eyes.    We  should  notice  the 
distance  at  which  we  can  read  best,  and  then  be 
careful  to  keep  our  book  at  about  that  distance. 
For  a  book  like  the  one  you  are  reading   you 
ought  to  read  the  print  at  about  sixteen  inches 
from  the  eyes,  if  your  eyes  are  in  good  condition. 

Reading  on  a  train  or  in  a  street-car  is  hard  on  the 
eyes.  This  is  because  the  jolting  of  the  train  causes 
the  eye  constantly  to  change  its  focus  to  keep  track  of 
the  moving  words.  The  muscles  of  the  eye  are  soon 
tired,  and  may  be  seriously  injured. 

It  pays  to  be  good  to  our  eyes. — We  may  think 
that  our  eyes  are  so  strong  that  none  of  these  things 
will  hurt  them.  But  we  can  never  be  sure,  and  we  ought 
not  to  injure  our  eyes  even  if  they  are  good.  If  we 
weaken  our  eyes  we  are  sure  to  have  to  pay  for  it  some 
day  by  being  obliged  to  wear  glasses,  or  being  unable 
to  see  well.  The  doctors  tell  us  that  about  one  boy 
and  girl  out  of  four  in  the  schools  of  the  United  States 
has  serious  eye  trouble.  Each  of  us  ought  to  save  our 
eyes  in  every  way  possible. 

Diseases  of  the  eye. — A  disease  called  "pink-eye" 
is  very  frequently  found  in  our  schools.  In  pink-eye 


162 


HYGIENE  AND  HEALTH 


the  eyes  smart  and  are  sensitive  to  the  light,  and  the 
eyelids  stick  together  at  night.  There  is  also  usually 
some  discharge  out  of  the  corners  of  the  eye.  The  eyes 
look  inflamed  and  red. 

Pink-eye  is  commonly  carried  by  means  of  towels, 

borrowed  handker- 
chiefs,  or  by  using 
wash-basins  which 
others  with  bad  eyes 
have  used. 

A  still  worse  disease 
is  that  called  trachoma. 
In  this  disease  the  eyes 
become  inflamed,  the 
lids  swell  and  the  sur- 
face of  the  eyeball 
becomes  rough.  The 
inner  surfaces  of  the 
eyelids  are  covered 
with  small  granules,  and  are  very  painful. 

This  disease  is  not  so  common  as  pink-eye,  but  it  is 
much  worse  when  one  has  it  and  may  sometimes 
cause  blindness.  Trachoma  is  very  contagious  and 
can  be  contracted  from  the  towels,  basins,  or  hand- 
kerchiefs used  by  those  who  have  the  disease. 

We  should  form  the  habit  of  keeping  our  hands 
away  from  our  eyes,  and  especially  never  rubbing 
them  when  they  smart  or  itch.  We  should  not  use 


From  Visual  Education  Number 


The  right  way  to  sit  when  reading.    The 

light  does  not  strike  the  eye,  but  falls  on 

the  book 


HOW  TO  HAVE  GOOD  EYES        163 

any  article  of  clothing  that  has  been  used  by  one  who 
has  sore  eyes.  We  should  not  wash  in  the  same  basin 
with  any  one  who  has  eye  trouble. 

Good  habits  in  protecting  our  eyes. — i.  Al- 
ways sitting  in  such  a  position  when  reading 
that  the  light  will  come  from  overhead,  the  side, 
or  behind  us.  It  should  never  shine  in  the  eyes. 

2.  Sitting   up   straight  when   we   read   instead   of 
bending  the  head  forward  over  our  work.    When 
we  hang  the  head  forward  extra  strain  is  put 
on  the  eyes. 

3.  Stopping  reading  when  the  eyes  begin  to  smart 
or  feel  tired,  or  when  we  notice  the  light  too  dim 
to  see  easily. 

4.  Going  to  the  doctor  if  our  eyes  become  red,  sore, 
or  inflamed,  or  if  they  discharge  and  the  lids 
stick  together. 

Bad  habits  about  the  eyes  which  we  should 
avoid. — i.  Rubbing  the  eyes  with  our  fingers 
or  with  soiled  handerchiefs,  or  towels  which 
other  people  have  used. 

2.  Looking  at  very  bright  lights  or  at.  the  sun. 

3.  Reading  while  in  bed  or  lying  down  so  that  the 
book  is  not  held  in  a  good  position. 

Interesting  things  to  do. — i.  Notice  carefully 
whether  the  letters  on  this  page  look  blurred. 
Whether  they  dance  about.  Whether  they  run 


1 64  HYGIENE  AND  HEALTH 

together.  If  they  do  any  of  these  things,  you 
should  have  your  eyes  examined  by  the  doctor. 
2.  Place  your  book  flat  against  the  wall  in  a  good 
light.  Then  go  exactly  fifteen  feet  back  and  see 
whether  you  can  easily  read  every  one  of  the 
first  line  of  letters  at  that  distance.  If  not  you 
should  have  your  eyes  examined.  Do  the  same 
for  the  second  line  at  ten  feet. 


RTVZBDFH 

(15  feet) 

t,      •  t 

VZYACEGLNPRT 

(10  feet) 


Health  Problems 

Are  your  eyes  good:  Can  you  read  the  print  of  this  book 
easily  at  a  distance  of  about  sixteen  inches  from  the  eye? 
Do  your  eyes  begin  to  smart  after  you  have  read  for  some 
time?  Does  your  head  ache  from  reading? 
A  boy  who  had  eyes  which  looked  inflamed  and  which  were 
running  somewhat  at  the  corners,  kept  rubbing  his  eyes 
with  his  fingers,  which  were  rather  dirty.  What  reasons 
can  you  give  why  one  should  not  rub  his  eyes  with  his 
fingers? 


CHAPTER  XXVI 

CARE  OF  THE   EARS 

While  some  one  is  talking  near  by  put  your  finger- 
tips into  your  ears  and  then  try  listening  to  the  conver- 
sation. Does  it  not  sound  strange?  Everything  is 
blurred,  and  now  and  then  there  are  words  that  you 
can  not  hear  at  all.  You  miss  a  great  deal  of  what  is 
said,  and  finally  lose  the  meaning  of  the  conversation. 

Would  it  not  be  dreadful  to  have  your  ears  like  that 
all  the  time?  Yet  there  are  many  children  who  have 
some  kind  of  ear  trouble  that  makes  it  impossible  for 
them  to  hear  any  better  than  you  can  with  your  ears 
stopped  up. 

Many  children  have  poor  hearing. — Physicians 
who  have  carefully  examined  the  ears  of  children  in 
many  schools  tell  us  that  nearly  one-fifth  of  all  the 
school  children  in  the  United  States  have  some  ear 
difficulty  which  makes  them  hard  of  hearing. 

In  school  one  who  is  hard  of  hearing  does  not  hear 
all  the  teacher  says  about  the  lesson.  He  may  miss 
the  assignment  or  some  important  explanation.  He 
finds  it  hard  to  prepare  his  lesson  and  soon  falls  behind 
the  class.  Many  such  children  are  thought  to  be  dull 

165 


1 66  HYGIENE  AND  HEALTH 

when  the  real  trouble  is  not  in  the  brain  at  all,  but 
in  the  ears. 

The  strange  thing  about  poor  hearing  is  that  it  may 
come  upon  us  without  our  knowing  it.  Unless  our 
hearing  becomes  very  bad,  it  may  grow  dull  without 
our  realizing  that  other  people  hear  better  than  we  do. 

How  to  detect  poor  hearing. — If  one  seems  to 
have  trouble  to  hear  what  the  teacher  is  saying  in 
school,  it  is  well  to  notice  whether  others  round  about 
seem  to  be  hearing  clearly.  If  so,  it  is  possible  that 
he  has  dullness  of  hearing  that  should  receive  attention 
from  the  doctor. 

Another  way  to  test  the  hearing  is  by  listening  to 
the  tick  of  a  watch.  Seat  yourself  in  a  chair  and 
close  your  eyes.  Have  some  one  take  a  watch  and  hold 
it  close  enough  to  your  ear  until  you  can  clearly  hear 
it  tick.  Then  have  him  move  the  watch  slowly  away 
until  it  reaches  the  point  where  you  can  no  longer 
hear  it.  Do  this  several  times,  and  measure  carefully 
to  find  out  the  greatest  distance  at  which  you  hear 
the  tick. 

Try  this  for  both  ears  in  the  same  way.  Then  have 
several  others  try  it.  If  most  of  your  classmates  can 
hear  the  watch  considerably  farther  away  than  you 
can,  it  means  that  your  hearing  has  some  difficulty 
that  needs  attention  from  the  doctor. 

Earache  and  poor  hearing. — Still  another  sign  of 
troublesome  ears  is  to  have  the  earache.  This  does 


CARE  OF  THE  EARS  167 

not  mean  that  every  one  whose  ears  may  sometimes 
ache  has  dullness  of  hearing.  But  the  hearing  is  nearly 
always  affected  if  one  has  earache  very  much.  Some- 
times the  ear  runs  pus,  or  matter,  which  has  gathered 
inside.  Running  ears  show  disease  that  the  doctor 
should  remedy.  They  many  times  lead  to  deafness. 
Most  of  the  ear  troubles  that  children  have  can  be 
cured  by  the  doctor  if  taken  to  him  in  time.  Any  one 
who  finds  that  his  hearing  is  somewhat  dull,  or  who 
has  earache,  or  a  discharge  from  the  ear  should  there- 
fore go  to  the  doctor.  This  may  save  deafness  later 
in  life,  and  it  will  surely  make  one  able  to  learn  faster 
and  better  while  he  is  in  school. 

How  the  ear  is  made. — The  ear  is  a  very  remark- 
able part  of  the  body.  If  you  will  have  a  friend  stand 
with  his  ear  turned  toward  a  bright  light,  and  then 
with  your  finger  pull  forward  the  projection  just  at 
the  front  of  the  ear,  you  can  look  down  a  small,  round 
canal  that  leads  straight  into  the  head.  The  canal  is 
nearly  one  inch  long.  At  the  end  of  this  canal  you 
will  see  a  little  membrane  stretched  across  like  the 
head  of  a  drum. 

Just  inside  this  membrane  there  is  a  little  chamber 
or  cavity  across  which  hang  in  a  row  three  tiny  little 
bones  that  are  tied  the  one  to  the  other.  These  bones 
lead  on  in  to  a  still  smaller  cavity  hollowed  out  of  the 
bone  of  the  skull.  It  is  in  this  small  inner  chamber 
that  the  hearing  is  really  done. 

12  J 


1 68  HYGIENE  AND  HEALTH 

From  the  cavity  just  back  of  the  drum-head  there  is 
a  small  tube  that  leads  to  the  back  part  of  the  mouth. 
Sometimes  the  germs  of  sore  throat  or  tonsilitis  succeed 
in  getting  up  this  tube  into  the  ear.  It  is  these  germs 
that  give  us  earache  and  cause  the  trouble  which 


Tub*  that-   leads 
To    1h«    mouth 


A  drawing  of  the  right  ear 

results  in  the  discharge  of  pus  from  the  ear.  This  is 
the  reason  why  we  often  have  earache  along  with  bad 
colds  or  sore  throat. 

How  we  hear. — If  you  throw  a  stone  into  a  pond 
of  water  you  see  the  waves  ripple  out  from  the  spot 
where  the  stone  dropped.  When  I  clap  my  hands 


CARE  OF  THE  EARS  169 

together  I  make  waves  in  the  air  just  like  those  in  the 
water  where  the  stone  strikes  it.  These  waves  in  the 
air  beat  on  the  drum-head  at  the  end  of  the  canal 
and  make  it  vibrate  back  and  forth.  The  little  bones 
carry  the  sound  waves  across  to  the  ear  inside. 

A  small  friend  of  mine  was  playing  on  his  drum 
recently  and  struck  it  so  hard  that  he  broke  the  mem- 
brane and  ruined  the  drum.  The  drum  of  your  ear  is 
much  more  sensitive  than  the  membrane  on  a  drum- 
head. Sometimes  a  sudden  blow  on  the  ear  will 
drive  a  rush  of  air  against  the  ear-drum  and  cause  it 
to  break.  This  may  injure  the  hearing  in  that  ear. 

Keeping  the  ears  from  injury. — You  may  have 
seen  people  pick  at  their  ears  with  matches,  hair-pins, 
toothpicks,  or  other  sharp  things.  This  is  always 
dangerous.  For  if  we  even  touch  the  drum  we  are 
likely  to  injure  it.  And  without  this  drum-head  we 
are  deaf. 

A  very  distinguished  man  whom  I  know  has  but 
one  ear  that  hears.  When  he  was  a  boy  he  was  one 
day  picking  at  his  ear  with  his  lead  pencil,  when 
some  one  passed  him  and  jogged  his  elbow.  This 
pushed  the  point  of  the  pencil  against  the  ear-drum 
and  destroyed  it. 

A  kind  of  wax  naturally  forms  in  the  little  canal 
that  leads  in  to  the  drum-head.  Ordinarily  this  wax 
comes  out  of  its  own  accord,  but  sometimes  forms  in 
lumps.  When  it  gathers  in  this  way  it  should  not  be 


170  HYGIENE  AND  HEALTH 

picked  out.  If  we  will  drop  into  the  ear  a  few  drops 
of  sweet  oil  or  olive  oil,  this  will  loosen  the  wax  so  that 
it  will  come  out  without  trouble. 

Points    to    remember    about    our    hearing. — 

1.  We  may  become  hard  of  hearing  without  know- 
ing it.     If  we  have  trouble  to  hear  what  people 
are  saying  we  should  have  our  ears  tested.    The 
doctor  can  do  this  in  a  few  minutes,  and  with 
no  pain  or  trouble  to  you. 

2.  Ear    trouble    and    deafness    often    come    from 
tonsilitis,  adenoids,  measles  or  scarlet  fever.     If 
our  ears  ache  or  run  pus  we  are  in  danger  of 
becoming  deaf  if  they  are  not  cured. 

3.  Most  ear  troubles  can  be  cured  if  taken  to  the 
doctor  in  time.     A  stitch  in  time  saves  nine! 

4.  The    ear   should    always   be    treated   well.      It 
should   never  be   boxed  nor  pulled,  nor  should 
it  ever  be  picked  or  the  wax  removed  with  any 
hard  instrument. 

Health  Problems 

1.  Robert  often  misses  hearing  what  the  teacher  says,  although 
the  rest  of  the -class  easily  hear  her.     What  two  possible 
explanations  are  there  of  Robert's  failure  to  hear  the  teacher? 

2.  Give  rules  for  taking  care  of  the  ear.    Do  you  follow  these 
rules  yourself? 

3.  Are  you  a  good  Health  Crusader? 


CHAPTER  XXVII 

BETTER   NOT — TOBACCO 

The  American  Indians  played  one  bad  trick  on  the 
white  people  who  drove  them  from  their  hunting 
grounds.  The  Indians  taught  their  white  neighbors 
to  use  tobacco.  This  was  about  the  middle  of  the 
sixteenth  century.  The  use  of  tobacco  has  spread  until 
it  is  now  known  almost  all  over  the  world. 

Rabbits  and  cigarettes. — In  order  to  test  the  ef- 
fects of  cigarette  smoke,  a  Russian  scientist  invented 
a  piece  of  apparatus  by  which  he  could  compel  rabbits 
to  breathe  the  smoke  of  cigarettes.  In  this  way  he 
had  his  rabbits  smoke  a  number  of  cigarettes  daily. 
Some  of  them  died  within  a  month,  but  others  seemed 
to  get  used  to  the  smoke,  so  that  it  did  not  appear  to 
injure  them.  When  these  smoking  rabbits  were  killed 
at  the  end  of  five  months,  however,  it  was  found  that 
their  blood-vessels  were  diseased,  and  that  their 
hearts  did  not  act  right.  These  effects  were  caused 
by  certain  poisons  in  the  tobacco.  So  the  cigarettes 
killed  some  and  injured  all. 

Another  doctor  took  one  of  these  tobacco  poisons, 
nicotine,  and,  parting  the  fur  of  a  healthy  rabbit, 

171 


172  HYGIENE  AND  HEALTH 

placed  one  large  drop  on  the  skin.  The  poison  soaked 
through  the  skin  into  the  blood  and  in  a  little  time 
the  rabbit  sickened  and  died.  He  then  tried  putting 
two  drops  of  nicotine  on  the  tongue  of  a  dog,  and  the 
same  amount  on  the  tongue  of  a  cat.  Both  the  dog 
and  the  cat  died  from  the  effects  of  the  poison. 

All  tobacco  contains  a  harmful  poison. — The 

reason  that  smoking  or  chewing  tobacco  does  not  kill 
men  is  because  they  do  not  get  all  of  the  poison  in 
this  way.  Much  of  it  goes  off  in  the  smoke  of  the  cigar, 
cigarette,  or  pipe.  When  the  tobacco  is  chewed  much 
of  the  poison  is  spit  from  the  mouth. 

Nevertheless  the  poisons  from  tobacco,  whether  it 
is  chewed  or  smoked,  do  affect  the  heart  and  blood- 
vessels. Cigarette  smoking  is  always  found  to  increase 
the  rate  of  the  heart  beat,  thereby  making  it  work 
harder  than  it  otherwise  would  need  to  work.  Careful 
experiments  made  upon  soldiers  showed  that  the 
smoking  of  a  few  cigarettes  increased  the  pulse  rate 
from  six  to  nine  beats  a  minute. 

The  smoker  is  usually  short  of  breath.  He  lacks 
endurance.  This  is  the  chief  reason  why  athletic 
coaches  will  not  allow  the  men  on  their  teams  to  smoke 
while  they  are  in  training.  One  can  not  help  but  won- 
der whether  if  tobacco  is  bad  for  an  athlete,  it  is  not 
bad  for  everybody. 

Effects  of  smoking. — Dr.  Bush  in  a  series  of  tests 
upon  fifteen  different  men  found  that  immediately 


BETTER  NOT—TOBACCO  173 

after  smoking,  these  students  showed  a  loss  of  more 
than  ten  per  cent,  in  mental  power.  The  loss  was 
greatest  when  they  smoked  cigarettes. 

Probably  there  is  no  man  who  uses  tobacco  but 
would  be  better  off  without  it.  Certainly  there  is  no 
boy  who  uses  tobacco  but  who  injures  his  heart, 
clouds  his  mind,  and  hurts  his  chances  for  success. 

The  tobacco  habit  hurts  one's  business  chances. 

— Great  business  concerns  have  come  to  learn  that 
boys  who  smoke  are  not  so  trustworthy  and  not  so 
efficient  as  those  who  do  not.  Many  of  the  largest  and 
most  successful  banks,  stores  and  factories  will  not 
now  employ  boys  who  smoke  cigarettes.  If  one  is 
sure  to  injure  his  health,  decrease  his  brain  power, 
and  shut  himself  from  the  best  business  chances  by 
the  use  of  tobacco,  it  would  seem  good  sense  to  let  it 
alone. 

Tobacco  using  is  not  a  very  cleanly  habit.  Chewing 
tobacco  is  perhaps  the  worst,  since  it  results  in  spitting 
in  a  filthy  and  disgusting  way.  Smoking  is  but  little 
better,  however,  and  one's  breath,  teeth,  and  mouth 
always  show  the  unpleasant  effects  of  tobacco. 

The  cost  of  tobacco. — Even  the  cost  of  tobacco  is 
one  important  reason  against  its  use.  The  person  who 
smokes  but  one  ten-cent  cigar  a  day  will  spend  $36.50 
a  year  for  his  tobacco.  If  he  smokes  three  cigars  a 
day,  his  tobacco  bill  will  be  more  than  $100.00  a  year. 


174  HYGIENE  AND  HEALTH 

Surely  there  are  many  ways  in  which  one  could 
better  spend  his  money  than  in  burning  it  up  in  smoke 
which  constantly  harms  him  in  place  of  doing  him 
good. 

Facts   worth   remembering   about    tobacco.— 

1.  Tobacco  never  helps  a  boy  get  or  hold  a  job.    It 
keeps  many  boys  from  securing  the  best  jobs. 

2.  The  use  of  tobacco,  especially  cigarettes,  never 
fails  to  interfere  with  our  growth  and  strength. 
It    always    dulls    the    mind    and     checks     our 
development. 

3.  Money  spent  for  tobacco  is  worse  than  wasted, 
for  what  we  buy  with  it  is  sure  in  the  end  to  do 
us  harm.     It  never  does  us  good. 

Health  Problems 

1.  It  has  been  found  that  boys  who  use  tobacco  do  not  do  so 
well  in  athletics  as  boys  who  do  not  use  it.    Which  do  you 
think  a  good,   live  boy  should  choose,   cigarettes  or  the 
strength  and  skill  that  make  him  a  good  athlete? 

2.  By  comparing  the  school  grades  of  boys  who  use  tobacco 
with  boys  who  do  not  use  it,  it  is  shown  that  the  tobacco 
users  do  not  do  as  good  work  as  the  non-users.    What  would 
you  say  is  the  wise  choice  for  a  boy  to  make? 

3.  How  many  reasons  can  you  give  why  a  boy  should  not  use 
tobacco?    How  many  reasons  why  he  should? 


CHAPTER  XXVIII 

BETTER   NOT — ALCOHOL 

Alcohol  has  recently  been  having  a  hard  time  of  it. 
When  the  great  war  broke  out  in  Europe  in  1914,  one 
of  the  first  things  each  of  the  nations  did  was  to  forbid 
or  limit  the  use  of  strong  drink. 

Russia  banished  vodka.  France  forbade  absinthe. 
England  limited  the  amount  of  beer  and  other  drinks 
that  could  be  bought.  The  United  States  passed  laws 
against  the  manufacture  and  sale  of  certain  liquors, 
and  finally  added  an  amendment  to  the  Constitution 
which  forbids  the  manufacture  and  sale  of  all  alcoholic 
drinks. 

Alcoholic  drink  always  an  enemy. — Action  was 
taken  against  alcohol  by  the  different  nations  because 
each  one  knew  it  must  put  forth  its  full  strength  in 
order  to  do  its  part  in  the  war.  Each  nation  knew  that 
strong  drink  always  injures  and  weakens  the  user. 

For  centuries  alcohol  has  deceived  men  and  made 
them  love  to  drink.  The  man  who  is  intoxicated 
imagines  that  he  is  having  a  good  time;  he  feels  very 
strong,  wise,  and  powerful.  He  does  not  know  that 
he  is  really  silly  and  stupid,  and  an  object  of  pity. 

175 


176  HYGIENE  AND  HEALTH 

Scientists  have  recently  carefully  measured  the 
strength,  endurance,  and  mental  power  of  men  who 
have  not  had  alcohol,  and  then  measured  the  same 
men  after  they  had  been  given  whisky  or  beer  or  wirie 
to  drink.  In  every  case  it  has  been  found  that  alcohol 
decreases  one's  strength.  It  weakens  his  endurance. 
It  confuses  his  mind  so  that  he  is  less  able  to  think. 

Growth  and  ability  injured  by  alcohol. — Even 
cats,  dogs,  chickens  and  guinea  pigs  which  have  been 
given  alcohol  show  the  effects.  They  fail  to  grow  full 
size.  They  are  dull  mentally  and  can  not  learn.  They 
do  not  live  as  long  as  they  otherwise  would.  In  fact, 
they  are  poor  specimens  of  animals,  just  as  men  who 
become  drinkers  are  poor  specimens  of  men. 

So  sure  is  alcohol  to  steal  away  one's  brain  and  lower 
his  strength  that  railroads,  factories,  business  houses, 
and  other  employers  now  quite  generally  refuse  to  hire 
men  who  drink. 

Alcohol  never  helps  in  the  end. — It  used  to  be 
thought  that  wine  and  beer  contained  certain  foods 
that  were  good  for  people,  especially  for  the  weak  or 
the  sick.  It  is  now  known  that  those  who  use  alcohol 
are  much  more  likely  to  take  disease  and  die  than  those 
who  have  never  used  it.  Many  people  think  that  a 
drink  of  whisky  will  enable  one  to  stand  severe  cold. 
It  has  been  clearly  shown,  however,  that  men  who  drink 
alcohol  in  any  form  are  unable  to  stand  exposure  to 
either  cold  or  heat  as  well  as  those  who  do  not  use  it. 


BETTER  NOT— ALCOHOL  177 

Alcohol  is  always  an  enemy  and  never  a  friend. 
Its  use  easily  grows  into  a  habit  that  men  find  impos- 
sible to  break.  It  makes  those  who  use  it  cruel  and 
dishonest.  It  causes  many  crimes.  It  fills  our  jails 
and  prisons. 

When  saloons  were  in  existence  in  this  country, 
more  money  was  spent  on  alcohol  in  the  United  States 
in  a  year  than  is  expended  for  the  running  of  our 
public  schools.  Yet  it  shortens  the  lives  of  those  who 
use  it,  robs  them  of  their  strength  and  manhood,  ruins 
their  careers,  and  causes  much  sorrow  and  distress 
to  others. 

No  form  of  strong  drink  is  safe. — There  is  no 
form  of  alcoholic  drink  that  is  wise  or  safe.  A  drink 
of  beer  is  not  so  bad  as  a  drink  of  whisky,  only  be- 
cause it  contains  less  alcohol.  But  more  beer  is  drunk 
than  whisky,  so  perhaps  it  really  does  more  harm  in 
the  end.  Wines  are  also  less  strong  than  whisky. 
But  there  is  no  drink  that  contains  alcohol  which  is 
not  foolish  and  harmful. 

Interesting  things  to  do  in  studying  about 
alcohol. — i.  Find  out  whether  the  law  against 
the  use  of  alcohol  is  well  obeyed  in  your  city. 
In  your  state. 

2.  Each  member  of  the  class  might  ask  some  suc- 
cessful banker,  doctor,  lawyer,  or  other  business 
man  what  he  thinks  about  the  use  of  alcohol. 
Ask  these  men  whether  they  would  want  to 
employ  any  one  who  drinks. 


CHAPTER  XXIX 

WHEN  ACCIDENTS   HAPPEN 

Probably  not  many  of  the  boys  and  girls  who  study 
this  book  have  had  really  bad  accidents,  or  have  been 
hurt  severely. 

But  suppose  each  of  you  stop  now  and  make  a  list 
of  all  of  the  cuts,  bruises,  sprains,  punctures  of  the 
skin,  burns,  or  other  kinds  of  small  hurts  you  can 
remember  having  had  in  the  past  year.  Very  likely 
you  find  it  quite  a  list,  and  one  never  knows  when  a 
still  more  serious  accident  or  hurt  may  come. 

What  to  do. — There  are  two  things  necessary  if 
we  are  to  do  the  right  thing  when  we  have  an  accident. 
First,  we  must  know  what  to  do.  Second,  we  must 
keep  a  cool  head. 

Almost  any  small  wound  will  heal  readily  if  we  make 
certain  of  two  things  about  it: 

1.  Wounds  must  be  cleaned  of  any  splinters,  bits 
of   gravel,    dirt    or    any    other    such    substance 
that  may  have  got  in. 

2.  Bacteria  must  be  kept  out  of  wounds,  or  pus 
will  form  and  the  wound  be  slower  in  healing. 

178 


WHEN  ACCIDENTS  HAPPEN  179 

Medicines   that    cleanse 

wounds. — Whenever  a  wound 

runs  pus  we  may  know  that    /  \ 

the  bacteria  have  got  in  and 

are    at    work.      In  order   to   clean 

wounds  from  bacteria,  the  surgeons 
wash  them  with 
what  they  call  an 
antiseptic.  This  may 
be  iodine,  hydrogen 
peroxide,  or  any 
other  one  of  several 
medicines. 

One  of  the  most 
common  forms  of 
wounds  is  cuts.  If  the  cut  is  severe, 
there  is  usually  a  good  deal  of  bleed- 
ing. If  the  blood  spurts  from  the 
wound  strongly,  it  means  that  an  artery 
is  cut,  while  if  it  flows  steadily  a  vein 
is  cut.  Arteries  carry  the  blood  from 
the  heart;  veins  carry  blood  back  to 
the  heart.  If  the  flow  is  strong  we 
should  call  the  doctor  to  stop  the 
bleeding  and  dress  the  wound. 

How   to   stop  bleeding. — But  we 

shall  need  to  do  something  immediately 
to  stop  the  bleeding  before  the  doctor 


This    shows    where    the 

large  artery  of  the  neck 

and  arm  runs 


Cut'' 


Stopping  bleeding 
from  a  cut  by 
tying  handkerchief 
loosely  around  the 
arm  and  then  twist- 
ing it  tight  with  a 
stick 


i8o 


HYGIENE  AND  HEALTH 


comes.  Unless  the  cut  is  very  deep  and  the  bleeding 
rapid,  it  can  usually  be  stopped  by  pressing  the  fingers 
tightly  over  the  cut.  If  this  does  not  check  the 
flow  of  blood,  a  handkerchief  should  be  tied  just 


Artery 


Pressure  with  the  thumbs  over 
the  large  artery  of  the  leg  will 
check  bleeding  while  a  bandage 
is  being  prepared.  The  pressure 
must  be  above  the  cut 


To  stop  severe  bleeding  from 
the  large  artery  of  the  leg,  a 
handkerchief  should  be  tied 
loosely  around  the  leg  above  the 
cut,  a  piece  of  stick  placed  over 
the  artery,  and  the  handkerchief 
then  twisted  tight 


above  the  cut  and  then   twisted   tight   with   a    stick 
until  the  bleeding  stops. 

The  doctor  will  wash  _the  cut  out  with  an  antiseptic, 
and  then  if  the  wound  gaps  open,  pull  the  edges  to- 
gether either  with  tape  or  with  stitches.  If  the  cut  is 


WHEN  ACCIDENTS  HAPPEN 


181 


not  severe  enough  to  call  the  doctor, 
we  can  cleanse  the  cut  and  apply  the 
tape  ourselves. 

Treating  bruises.  —  Bruises  are 
sometimes  as  serious  as  cuts  and  need 
to  be  treated  as  carefully.  If  the  skin 
has  been  broken  through,  the  bruised 
place  should  be  carefully  washed  with 
an  antiseptic  and  all  of  the  dirt  and 
foreign  substances  carefully  removed. 
A  piece  of  absorbent  cotton  wrung  out 
of  the  antiseptic  solution  may  then  be 
laid  over  the  bruised  place  and  a 

bandage 


Adhesive  plaster  applied  to  cuts  on  the 
face.  This  treatment  will  aid  in  the 
healing  and  will  help  prevent  scars 


The  edges  of  a  cut 
may    be    held    to- 
gether by  strips  of 
adhesive  tape 

put  over  the 
whole.  Cold  cloths  are 
sometimes  applied  to 
bruised  places  in  order 
to  keep  the  soreness  and 
swelling  down. 

Puncture  wounds  are 
often  more  dangerous 
than  either  cuts  or 
bruises.  We  may  step  on 
a  rusty  nail  and  not  feel 
the  hurt  greatly  at  the 
time.  It  is  entirely  cer- 
tain, however,  that  a 
great  number  of  bacteria 


1 82  HYGIENE  AND  HEALTH 

are  carried  by  the  point  of  the  nail  into  the  skin.  Since 
the  punctured  wound  does  not  bleed  much,  the  bac- 
teria are  not  washed  out  by  the  blood  as  many  of  them 
are  in  a  flowing  cut  wound.  Blood  poisoning,  or  even 
lock-jaw,  often  follows  a  wound  from  a  dirty  nail. 

Punctured  wounds. — If  the  skin  has  been  punc- 
tured by  a  clean  nail  or  a  bright  needle  or  pin,  there 
is  less  danger.  Any  punctured  wound  should  be 
squeezed  immediately,  however,  to  force  the  blood  out 
if  possible.  Iodine  or  alcohol  should  be  spread  freely 
over  the  punctured  place  and  even  poked  down  into 
the  hole  with  the  point  of  a  clean  toothpick. 

Sprains  are  often  very  troublesome  hurts.  Sprains 
are  caused  by  the  tearing  or  pulling  loose  of  little  bands 
called  ligaments,  which  hold  the  bones  together  at 
the  joints.  If  the  sprain  is  severe,  the  smaller  blood- 
vessels are  broken  and  the  blood  gathers  about  the 
sprained  part.  This  causes  it  to  swell  and  also  helps 
to  increase  the  pain. 

Taking  care  of  a  sprain. — The  sprained  part 
should  immediately  be  plunged  into  cold  water,  which 
will  help  keep  the  swelling  down  and  stop  the  pain. 
This  may  be  changed  after  a  time  to  very  hot  water, 
which  will  have  the  same  effect.  If  the  sprain  is  severe 
enough  to  cause  much  pain,  the  joint  may  require 
bandaging.  In  applying  the  bandage  care  must  be 
taken  to  make  it  draw  tightly  over  the  softer  portions 


WHEN  ACCIDENTS  HAPPEN 


183 


around  the  joint,  for  these  are  the  places  where  the 
blood  will  settle  and  the  swelling  be  most  severe. 

If  the  sprain  is  slight,  it  is  best  to  exercise  the  sprained 
part  lightly  to  keep  it  from  getting  stiff.  If  it  is  too 
severe  it  may  be  necessary  to  rest  the  joint  for  a  num- 
ber of  days. 

Burns. — When  burns  occur,  the  very  first  thing  to 
do  is  to  shut  the  air  from  the  burned  part.  This  can 
be  done  by  plunging  the 
burned  place  into  cold 
water.  If,  however,  a 
large  portion  of  the  body 
has  been  burned,  as  from 
the  clothing  taking  fire, 
then  it  is  better  to  put 
the  person,  clothing  and 
all  into  warm  water,  as 
in  a  bath-tub. 

If  the  burn  is  severe  the  doctor  will,  of  course,  be 
called  and  will  tell  what  to  do  next.  The  burn  should 
be  kept  from  the  air,  however,  until  the  doctor  has 
arrived.  This  will  save  pain  and  will  make  it  easier  to 
treat  the  burn  afterward. 

It  is  a  mistake  to  put  anything  on  burns  that  will 
stick  to  them  and  make  pain  and  trouble  in  getting 
the  substance  off. 

If  the  skin  is  only  red  and  not  blistered  or  broken 
through,  the  burn  may  be  covered  with  a  clean  cloth 

13 


One  way  of  bandaging   for  a   sprain 


1 84  HYGIENE  AND  HEALTH 

that  has  been  soaked  in  water  in  which  ordinary 
cooking  soda  has  been  dissolved.  This  will  serve  to 
keep  the  air  from  the  burned  place,  and  will  lessen 
the  pain.  If  the  skin  is  blistered  or  broken  through, 
however,  salad  oil,  castor  oil,  glycerine,  vaseline  or 
fresh  lard  without  salt  can  be  put  on  the  burned  place 
till  the  doctor  comes. 

When  the  skin  blisters  from  a  burn,  it  should  be 
dressed  with  oil,  and  then  not  disturbed  for  about  twenty- 
four  hours.  At  the  end  of  this  time  the  liquid  must  be 
let  from  the  blister.  This  can  best  be  done  by  snipping 
through  the  top  of  the  blister  with  sharp  scissors. 

Frost-bites. — If  we  frost  the  nose,  ears,  fingers,  or 
any  other  part  of  the  body,  it  immediately  turns 
white  because  the  blood  has  stopped  flowing  through. 
The  great  secret  of  caring  for  a  frost-bitten  part  is  to 
thaw  it  out  gradually.  A  handful  of  snow  or  plunging 
the  frozen  part  into  a  basin  of  cold  water  is  far  better 
than  to  thaw  it  out  in  warm  water  or  in  the  heat  of 
the  fire.  Thawing  a  frost-bitten  part  with  warm  water 
or  fire  heat  not  only  causes  intense  pain,  but  makes 
the  place  more  sore  afterward. 

Chilblains  are  caused  by  poor  circulation  of  the 
blood  in  the  feet.  This  is  usually  brought  about  by 
cold  feet,  or  by  tight  shoes  worn  in  the  winter-time. 
Going  with  wet  feet  also  tends  to  cause  chilblains. 
Chilblains  cause  the  feet  to  become  very  sore  and  to 
itch  badly. 


WHEN  ACCIDENTS  HAPPEN  185 

To  cure  chilblains  it  is  necessary  to  keep  the  circu- 
lation of  the  feet  good.  This  can  be  done  by  keeping 
the  feet  warm,  wearing  shoes  that  do  not  bind,  and  by 
rubbing  the  feet,  especially  at  night.  Healing  oint- 
ments may  also  be  rubbed  on  the  sore  places. 

Interesting  things  to  do. — I.  Play  that  you 
have  cut  your  wrist  and  that  it  is  bleeding. 
Put  an  ink  mark  on  the  skin  to  represent  the 
cut.  Now  show  how  to  hold  the  cut  shut  with 
the  fingers  of  your  other  hand  so  it  will  not  bleed. 

2.  Play  one  of  the  class  has  cut  his  arm  badly  just 
above   the   elbow.     Show  how  to  put  a  hand- 
kerchief  around   the    arm    and    then    twist    it 
tight  with  a  stick  to  stop  the  bleeding. 

3.  Show  how  to  bathe  and  bandage  an  ankle  for 
a  bad  sprain. 

4.  Show  how  to  treat  frost-bitten  fingers,  nose  or 
ears. 

5.  Play  that  a  burn  has  blistered  the  back  of  your 
hand.      Show  just  what  to  do  in  caring  for  it. 

6.  Make  a  Health   Crusader  report  showing   the 
good  health  habits  you  have  formed  while  study- 
ing this  book. 


INDEX 


Accidents,  ch.  on,  178 
Adenoids,  83 

Air,  and  breathing,  79,  126 
dry,  and  breathing,  90 
for  the  skin,  88 
living  in  pure,  86 
need  of,  80 
open-air  schools,  87 

Alcohol,  ch.  on,  175 
effects  of,  176 

Bacteria,  ch.  on,  56 
and  diseases,  60 
and  food,  59,  63 

Bathing,  need  of,  114 
after  games,  128 
rules  for,  113 

Bleeding,   stopping  of,  179 
Blood,  the  circulation  of,  96 


Chest,   expansion    of,   85 
Cigarettes,   effects  of,   171 

Clothing,  ch.  on,  118 
cleanliness  of,  122 
materials  for,  120 
requirements  of,  119 

Colds,  causes  of,  112 
driving  away,  112 

Dandruff,  147 

Dinners,  how  to  plan,  45 

Disease,  bacteria  and,  60 
flies  and,  69 
mosquitoes  and,  74 

Dreams,  132 

Ears,  ch.  on,  165 
aching,   166 
protection  of,  169 


structure  of,  167 

Breakfasts,      right      and      wrong    Eating>  experiments  in,  42 

between   meals,  52 
rules  for,  50 

Energy,  coming  from  food,  25 

Eyes,  ch.  on,  158 

accidents  to,  158 
care  of,   160 
diseases   of,   161 
Carbon  dioxide,  how  produced,  81  overworking,  159 

getting  rid  of,  81  tests  for,   164 

1 86 


kinds,  43 
how  to  plan,  44 

Breathing,   experiments  in,  79 
getting  short  of  breath,  97 

Bruises,  how  to  treat,  181 
Burns,  treatment  of,  183 


INDEX— Continued 


I87 


Flies,  ch.  on,  68 
and  disease,  69 
keeping  out,  70 
preventing  hatching,  70 
protecting  food  from,  69 

Food,  and  bacteria,  59,  63 
necessary  kinds  of,  29,  32 
likes  and  dislikes  for,  53 
why  the  body  needs,  23 
kinds  to  be  omitted,  48 

Frost-bites,  184 
Fruit,  as  a  food,  36 
Gastric  juice,  41 
Growth,  bodily,  24 
Habit,  ch,  on,  1 

the  forming  of,  4 

friend-habits,  5 

enemy-habits,  6 

Hair,,  ch.  on,  146 

care  of,  148 

insects  in,  149 
Health,  ch.  on,  8 

health  "crusaders,"  13 

health  "chores,"  17 
Hearing,  detecting  poor,  166 

causes  of  poor,  16S 
Heart,  the,  ch.  on,  95 
Heat,  from  food,  27 

regulation  of  bodily,  107 
Heredity,  effect  of  on  size,  11 

Hygiene,  exercises  in,  11,  17,  21, 
30,  38,  48,  54,  61,  67,  72,  78, 
79,  85,  92,  99,  104,  106,  112, 
117,  123,  125,  129,  134,  139, 
144,  150,  156,  163,  170,  174, 
177,  185 


"Inspection,"  school,  3 
Lunch,  school,  48 

Lungs,  protecting  the,  83 
size  of,  82 
work  of,  81 

Meals,  planning  of,  40 
good  cheer  at,  41 
playing  before  and  after,  127 

Meat,  as  a  food,  35 

Microbes,  ch.  on,  56 
and  food,  59,  63 
where  found,  56 
work  of,  57 

Mosquitoes,  ch.  on,  74 
and  disease,  74 
getting  rid  of,  76 

Nails,  ch.  on  the,  152 
cleaning  the,  154 
curing  hang-nails,  153 
trimming  the,    152 
toe,  155 

Oxygen,  in  the  body,  81,  97 
Perspiration,  108,  110 
Pores,  110 

Posture,  ch.  on,  100 

harm  from  bad,  100 
sitting,   102 
sleeping,  105 
standing,  105 

Ration,  the  balanced,  33 
Record  blank,  health,  20 
Rest,  130 
Saliva,  41 


188 


INDEX— Concluded 


Schools,  open-air,  87 

Size,  at  different  ages,  9 
things  that  affect,  10 

Skin,  ch.  on  the,  107 
need  of  air  for,  88 
cleanliness  for,   113 
work  of,  108 

Sleep,  ch.  on,  130 
habits  of,  131 
out-of-door  sleeping,  133 
posture  in,  106 

Spine,  curvature  of,  103 
Sprains,  182 

Supper,  how  to  plan  the,  46 
Sweat  glands,  110 


Teeth,  the,  ch.  on,  135 
care  of,  140 
crooked,  137 
dangers  to,  144 
decayed,  138 

Temperature,  in  rooms,  91 

Tobacco,  ch.  on,  171* 
poisons  from,  172 
and  success,  173 

Vegetables,  as  a  food,  36 
Ventilation,  rules  for,  89 
Water,  as  a  food,  37 
Wheat,  as  a  food,  35 

Wounds,  care  of,  178 
punctured,  182 


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